Featured image: The rocky, sandy bed of a seasonal stream in Somaliland. (Vladimir Lysenko, 2015. CCA-SA 4.0 International License).

SUMMARIES OF 27 REPORTS ABOUT THE NORTHERN RANGELANDS OF SOMALIA (PRESENT-DAY SOMALILAND AND PUNT). (Provided by Peter Kuchar who was rangeland ecologist, Hiraan Region, for the Central Rangelands Development Project. These titles are not included in the previous post. Titles listed in order of occurrence.)

LIST OF TITLES (Summaries follow after the list)

Kapteijns, Lidwien  1995  Gender relations and the transformation of the northern Somali pastoral tradition.  Int. J. Afr. Hist. Stud. 28: 241-259.

Bally PRO  1976  Notes on the vegetation of Somalia.  Boissiera 24: 447-450.

Coulter J & Coppen J  1987  Market study for frankincense and myrrh from Somalia.  Eu. Assoc. for Coop., Contract service rept. C0026, 37p. [in Bowen & Bird 1988]

Edwards DC  1944  A survey of the grazing areas of British Somaliland, 2nd draft.  Vet. Res. Lab., Kabete (Nairobi), unpub., 31p.

Farah, Ahmed Yusuf  1994  The milk of the Boswellia forest: frankincense production among the pastoral Somali.  EPOS, Dept. Social & Economic Geography, Uppsala Univ., 142p.

Macfayden, WA  1950  Vegetation patterns in the semi-desert plains of British Somaliland.  Geog. J. 116: 199-211.

Greenwood, JEGW  1957  The development of vegetation patterns in Somaliland Protectorate.  Geog. J. 123: 465-473.

Boaler, SB & CAH Hodge  1962  Vegetation stripes in Somaliland.  J. Ecol. 50: 465-474.

Boaler, SB & CAH Hodge  1964  Observations on vegetation arcs in the Northern Region, Somali Republic.  J. Ecol. 52: 511-544.

Hemming, CF  1965  Vegetation arcs in Somaliland.  J. Ecol. 53: 57-67.

Stafford, JH & CL Collenette  1931  The Anglo-Italian Somaliland boundary.  Geog. J. 78(2): 102-121.

Collenette, CL  1931  North-Eastern British Somaliland.  Kew Bul. (Bul. Misc. Info.) 1931: 401-414.

Clifford, EHM  1936  The British Somaliland-Ethiopian boundary.  Geog. J. 87: 289-307.

Gillett, JB  1941  The plant formations of western British Somaliland and the Harar Province of Abyssinia.  Kew Bul. (Bul. Misc. Info.) 1941: 37-75.

Gilliland, HB  1952  The vegetation of eastern British Somaliland.  J. Ecol. 40: 91-124.

Hemming, CF  1966a  The vegetation of the northern region of the Somali Republic.  Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. 177: 173-250.

Sommerlatte, Malte & Abdi Umar  2000  An ecological assessment of the coastal plains of north western Somalia (Somaliland).  IUCN Eastern Afr. Prog., Somali Natural Resources Manage. Prog., 63p.  http://www.iucn.org/places/earo/pubs/drylands/somaliacoast.pdf

Miskell, John  2000  An ecological and resource utilisation assessment of Gacaan Libaax, Somaliland.  IUCN Eastern Afr. Prog., Somali Natural Resources Manage. Prog., 20p. http://www.iucn.org/places/earo/pubs/drylands/somaliaresource.pdf

Glover, PE  1966  Some notes on Hodotermes erithreensis (Sjostedt) Minor Harris (Somali name: ‘Abor aro madu’) in British Somaliland.  E. Afr. Wildl. J. 4: 47-49.

Glover, PE  1967  Notes on some ants in northern Somalia.  E. Afr. Wildl. J. 5: 65-73.

Venema, JH  2007  Land resources assessment of Somalia.  FAO SWALIM (Somalia Water & Land Information Management) Proj. Rep. No. L-12, Nairobi, 83p. www.faoswalim.org OR http://www.faoswalim.org/ftp/Land_Reports/Cleared/L-12%20Land%20Resources%20of%20Somalia.pdf

Venema & Vargas 07 – land suitab N Som. (2007? Land suitability Northern Somalia?)

Monaci, L, M Downie & S Oduori  2007.  Land cover of selected study areas in Somaliland and Southern Somalia.  FAO SWALIM (Somalia Water & Land Information Management) Proj. Rep. No. L-03, Nairobi, 97p.  www.faoswalim.org

Lawrie, John J  1954  Acacias and the Somali.  Emp. For. Rev. 33: 234-238.

Swayne, HGC  1903(1895)  Seventeen trips through Somaliland and a visit to Abyssinia, 3^rd ed.  Rowland Ward, London, 385p.

Drake-Brockman, Ralph E  1912  British Somaliland.  Hurst & Blackett, London, 344p. 

Hadden, R Lee  2007  The geology of Somalia: a selected bibliography of Somalian geology, geography and earth science.  Topographic Engineering Center, US Army Corps of Engineers, Alexandria Virginia, 401p.

SUMMARIES

Kapteijns, Lidwien  1995  Gender relations and the transformation of the northern Somali pastoral tradition.  Int. J. Afr. Hist. Stud. 28: 241-259.

            A general look at customary life, with more emphasis on females.

Bally PRO  1976  Notes on the vegetation of Somalia.  Boissiera 24: 447-450.

                  “The Somali Democratic Republic extends over the greater part of the Horn of Africa.  Today it consists of the former British and Italian Somaliland, but ethnologically French Somaliland, the Ethiopian Province of Ogaden and the North-Eastern Province of Kenya belong to it; ecologically too, for the entire region is one of low rainfall and is almost devoid of permanent watercourses.  Only in the south two rivers, the Juba and the Webi Scebelli, springing from the Ethiopian Highlands, are more or less permanent; occasionally their beds are reduced to dry sandy lanes.”  In the N, several low mt ranges, summit at 2700 m.  To the E are several massifs.  S of the N mts is a plateau generally at 500 m, with numerous minor & much eroded hills, some of pure gypsum.

                  The land in the S half uniform, rarely >300 m.  “The two rivers which traverse it contribute little to the general aspect of the vegetation; both banks are fringed with a dense but very narrow belt of riverine vegetation, whose dominating tree is the Doum Palm, Hyphaene; immediately beyond this fringe one finds oneself in arid desert country.”

                  At intervals of up to 20 yrs, “the coast experiences mighty cyclones with heavy rainfall penetrating up to 80 km inland.”  This gives a rich ephemeral vegetation but much damage through erosion especially where plant cover already largely removed.

                  In the arid Horn of Africa, “an extraordinarily varied and highly specialized xerophytic vegetation had come into being, able to withstand the long periods of drought and at the same time to support a rich and diversified fauna.”

                  “Until less than a hundred years ago the Somali countries were practically unknown to the West, and their inhabitants depended entirely on the very limited resources of their arid land, frequently plagued by droughts with ensuing famines.  Blood-feuds and internal fighting took their toll too, to reduce the human population.”

                  “Reliable accounts by travellers at the turn of the century bear witness to the rich vegetation covering the hillsides; on few of the mountains forests still exist.  The tree-studded plains were densely covered with grasses.  They teemed with numerous herds of a great variety of wild game, including several endemic species, herbivores with their attendent predators and scavengers.”

                  “The Flora of the Horn of Africa is extremely rich in endemics, estimated by some botanists to be as high as 30% or even more.”  Also, an important N-temperate element especially in the extreme N tip of the Horn, pointing to a closer pre-Rift connection with Eurasia.  Also striking is the wealth of xerophytes, suggesting long arid eras.

                  “But while delicately adjusted to hold its own against the rigours of an arid climate, the plant-cover cannot withstand the sudden onslaught of today’s proliferation of man and his livestock.”

                  Few resources, especially lack of oil and other mineral resources; very limited potential for conventional crop production; irrigated floodplains with banana-export industry.  Economy mostly based on livestock and byproducts.  Fisheries a great unexploited potential: c2900 km of coastline.

                  Then, some discussion & promotion of yicib as a valuable resource (summarized in YICIB file).

Coulter J & Coppen J  1987  Market study for frankincense and myrrh from Somalia.  Eu. Assoc. for Coop., Contract service rept. C0026, 37p. [in Bowen & Bird 1988]

Frankincense tapped from wild stands of Boswellia trees in mountainous areas of NE Somalia, belonging to extended families.  “Although subsidiary to herding, collection is a vital mainstay to the local economy in a very poor region, and for many collectors is the principal source of income.”

Commiphora tapped for gum-resins such as myrrh, opoponax, haggar in Som, Eth & Kenya are common property and predominantly exploited by nomadic herdsmen as a subsidiary source of income.

Incense gums are important to the Somali economy, & rank 3rd in export revenue after livestock and bananas.  “Estimation of the volume and value of exports is difficult due to contraband and underinvoicing.”

The bulk of the export value from maydi, chewing incense of B. freereana; c1000 T/yr, of which 80-90% exported; mainly consumed by Saudi Arabia where demand has increased greatly since the early 1970s following the boom in oil prices.

Beeyo, or Somali-type olibanum from B. sacra: 300 T/yr, half exported, China the principal market, also to Eu for processing into ingredients for manufacture of perfumes, soaps & detergents.

Commiphora gums c1000 T/yr exported, but much of this collected in Ethiopia. (for all this, …qb Bowen & Bird 1988)

Edwards DC  1944  A survey of the grazing areas of British Somaliland, 2nd draft.  Vet. Res. Lab., Kabete (Nairobi), unpub., 31p.

                  Mainly covers grazing milieu & conditions, also lots on range deterioration & remedies.  Some fine photos of main veg. types & stages of deterioration.  A surprisingly informative paper considering it’s unpublished & unquantitative.

                  But note his reason (excuse?): the aim is to cover the main types of grazing, “and any attempt to describe the vegetation in detail has been avoided, as being unnecessary in this report and as tending even to obscure the salient points and recommendations.”  Also notice  his recommendation “to consult an excellent technical description of the vegetation of Western Somaliland” by Gillett (1941) – is that actually a good veg. paper? Yeah it’s actually pretty good for its day.

                  Linked with the major veg. zones are 4 main types of grazing (areas).  In all, a considerable proportion of the forage is derived from woody plants.  The nearest approach to true grassland is in open areas of the southern plain or ‘haud’.

                   (1) E plains of Desert Grass & Desert Shrub (= the Nogal Valley). Mostly dominated by Sporobolus 2 spp., frequent associate & occasionally dominant Dactyloctenium scindicum; in limited better areas Chrysopogon aucheri important.  Grass alternates with narrower belts of saltbush (Suaeda).

                  (2) Grass-bush veg. of the haud: most of the S edge of N Somalia, southward; open bush with abundant turfed grass & shrubs; trees occasionally prominent, also extensive open SG, possibly anthropogenic.  Bushes c2.5 m, dominated by Acacia & Commiphora; main grass dominants are Aristida kelleri & A. papposa with occasional areas of strongly dominant Chrysopogon.  Frequent small areas of pure stands of Schizachyrium kelleri.  Cenchrus ciliaris common.  Indigofera ruspolii one of the most important shrubs, and important constituent of the forage in many parts.

                    Degenerate phase, with less grass, in the Gardo area and the region from Burao to Las Anod (see map).

                     (3) Acacia-short grass open woodland.  Covers much of the interior in NW Somalia, from Burao to Borama and the border (see map).  Dominants are Acacia bussei in the eastern portion and A. etbaica in the western & moister portion.  Patchy herb layer; dominants Sporobolus sp., Dactyloctenium scindicum; important Cenchrus ciliaris, Enneapogon, Tragus; the annual Eragrostis tenuifolia appears after rain in the higher areas.  Stony hills of the W have candelabra-like Euphorbia, and herbage becomes extremely scant, replaced by dense Aloe.

This habitat, with rainfall c400-500 mm, and with more plentiful water supply than in most of the N, is chiefly cattle along with other stock; also primitive agriculture based on sorghum.

                    (4) Shrub Acacia – desert shrub.  The whole N coast of Brit.Somaliland, gradually narrowing eastward.  Extremely low rainfall throughout, but considerable variation in vegetation from E to W.

                     At the E end, virtually barren rock rubble, the only significant plant life along water channels, notably wild date & Conocarpus.  The coastal strip has very sparse dwarf Acacia, and Ziziphus hamur.  Not even camels can survive at Bender Cassim.

                    Centrally, e.g. Berbera area, again dwarf acacia bushes on the sandy coastal belt, here c10-12 mi wide; but on higher land, considerable areas with fairly thick Indigofera ruspolii, insignificant grass cover.

                      Beginning at Berbera and gradually expanding westward (at Zeila it is at least 50-60 km wide) is a coastal zone with comparatively tall grass.  In the E has well-developed Suaeda fruticosa alternating with areas of scattered low acacia trees.  Large open portions have Eragrostis hararensis and Panicum sp., limited areas dominated by Sporobolus spicatus.

                       The Zeila Plain is tall-grass, strongly dominated by Lasiurus scindicus, with E. hararensis frequent in limited areas.

                       [5] Transition zone on foothills of escarpment falling to to the coastal plain; between evergreen scrub and desert plain.  Acacia and Commiphora prominent, Sansevieria and other succulents common, and I. ruspolii often forms a considerable proportion of ground vegetation.

                        [6] Evergreen scrub – Buxus, Acokanthera, Euphorbia.

                        [7] Juniperus forest.  Open areas carpeted by Cynodon dactylon.

                       The steep slopes of the Golis Range appear to constitute an important grazing area for desert pastoralists of the coastal plain.

                  Main factor controlling veg. zonation is climate – especially the marked difference between scant, stunted coastal-plain growth & the relatively productive woodland, etc.  But “Soil types, however, appear to assume quite an unusual significance in determining the nature of the vegetation and grazing supported by areas within the plateau which occupies the main part of the country.”  This is especially aimed at the existence and significance of the haud.

                  Haud  The whole region of Grass-Bush vegetation along the S edge of N Somalia and extending far southward is known to Somali pastoralists as the haud, and “the name conveys to them a particular soil and vegetation.  On several occasions in the course of the survey, careful observations were made of the change from superior to poorer vegetation in passing from the red soil of the Haud to other types.  Everywhere this change could be attributed to soil, and nowhere was it definitely connected with the political boundary of the country” and that connection to different grazing histories.  The typical haud area has a brick-red, deep, sandy limestone soil, and it provides by far the best grazing in N Somalia. [this is a real recommendation, and should be noted in discussion of haud in CR, i.e. a great range area]  The edible shrubs as well as grasses attain a much better development here.  The better vegetation owes its existence, at least in important measure, to the greater moisture-retaining property of the soil, which furthermore appears distinctly less subject to erosion than northward.

                  The area extending over the E boundary of Brit. Somaliland (and centered on Gardo) is known as Sorl Haud; it has the same dominants and a similar soil, but a drier climate.

                  The correlation of haud on the sketch-map of geology is evidently very closely with middle eocene limestone, both for the haud proper and the Sorl Haud (in fact the correlation is so tight, is is likely the vegetation map was drawn using the geology as a base-map).  The other major types in the non-mountain regions are lower eocene limestone, gypsum anhydrite, and volcanic soil; these are definitely negatively correlated with haud.

                  Deterioration  “I do not subscribe to the view that a high proportion of the country is changing towards desert as the result of human occupation.  This does not imply, however, that evidence of very marked deterioration is lacking in localised areas.”

                  Gives a rational introduction and explanation for the deterioration, which is related to water availability; it is quoted in large part:

                  “If a map of the Protectorate is examined, it will be found that practically all the place names indicate widely scattered wells, the only permanent sources of water. The centres of population depend entirely upon these. The rainfall is insufficient to produce streams which flow throughout the year. The water resulting from storms in the hills is carried by gullies known as ‘tugs’. These usually flow as a violent rush of water, for a few hours only, following rain in higher country. Such intermittent streams are common throughout East Africa. Owing to the scarcity of water the human and stock population is tied to the wells and, except for comparatively brief periods after the two rainy seasons, must of necessity remain within range of the wells. The life of the Somali herdsman is therefore spent in seasonal migrations between the permanent water supplies and temporary supplies which enable him to utilize the grazing of outlying areas.

                  “Such a state of affairs naturally leads to excessive pressure upon the vegetation in the vicinity of the wells, and this is almost everywhere evidenced by extensive deterioration, amounting frequently to complete denudation of the ground surface and the resulting removal of the surface soil by wind and water erosion. The approach to a well is often noticeable for 10 or 15 miles, the deterioration of the vegetation becoming progressively more marked towards the centre of a wide circle. In the past the Somali appears to have recognised the danger of this destruction of the grazing lands around the permanent water supplies and to have evolved a system of wet-season protection, based upon tribal ownership of the areas. No such organised utilization now exists.

                  “The most extensive destruction is being wrought in the better vegetational area shown on the map as Acacia – Short Grass Open Woodland, and the area fringing this. Permanent water is more plentiful in this region, and together with the higher rainfall and consequently more productive nature of the country, it has resulted in a somewhat greater concentration of population. The whole of the formation is more or less heavily utilized.

                  “Around centres of population and water supplies in general there are extensive areas of very marked deterioration. This takes the form first of removal of the grass and shrub cover by continuous grazing, and then destruction of the trees. Once the ground vegetation has been removed, the death of the trees follows. In the absence of grass and shrubs the Somali herdsmen cut and bend over branches of the Acacias in order to bring the leafage within reach of their sheep and goats, and this treatment, particularly in the eastern and drier portion of the area, finally results in the destruction of the trees. Cases have been seen where trees have been killed in this manner even when the shrubs and herbage have not been completely removed prior to cutting, but the removal of the ground vegetation is a potent factor in destroying the trees, and in some localities is capable of bringing about such destruction without the added affect of cutting. It is evident that denudation of the ground surface results in much greater run-off and the loss of much of the water which would otherwise sink through the soil to the tree roots. In the dry areas under consideration this is a critical factor, and it will be further discussed below. Usually both over-grazing and tree cutting combine to destroy the open woodland and to leave a windswept, sandy waste.

                  “Various stages of this process of destruction may be seen in a belt surrounding all the larger centres of population and, in fact, in the proximity of all permanent water in this vegetational zone. Probably the most striking example of deterioration of the type described is to be found in the Burao area, where this vegetation is near to its dry eastern limit. The settlement itself stands in a large open area devoid of vegetation. A clearing was originally made for military purposes and it appears that the bare area has been extended to the north east as the result of the blown sand which is driven before the ‘Karif’. During my visits to Burao in July and August visibility was frequently only about a hundred yards. For 15 or 20 miles in any direction from this centre marked destruction of the vegetation is taking place. In the nearer areas the ground beneath the Acacia trees is bare and sandy with mounds of blown sand around the bushes and at the base of the trees. Towards the fringe of the affected area grasses have largely disappeared and have been replaced by low shrubs. Throughout, a marked feature of the landscape is dead and dying trees”

                  Deterioration is slower in the W & moister part of the region: here the veg. withstands maltreatment rather longer, “but there is ample evidence of change in the same general direction towards the same final result – desert.”

                  Where agr. (sorghum) has appeared, there has been extensive tree-clearing, primarily for fencing material, also because bark and root of the acacias have various uses.

                  Comparatively little deterioration in the Haud or Sorl haud, at least partly due to scarcity of permanent water.  But there are areas with partial or complete denudation of the ground surface, in the form of strips to c1 km wide and extending in direction of prevailing wind; the cause is fire.  This form of deterioration resembles that in vicinity of permanent WPs.

                  Though grass burning is likely a useful management too in E.Afr., its practice is to be condemned in N Somalia.  Grass and shrubs are often complete destroyed by a fire and are capable of only little recovery.  Apart from the direct killing effect of fire on the small trees, the larger ones succumb to drought because rainwater is not held by the vegetation.  The conclusion is that “Unlike regions of East Africa to the south where the vegetation and soils have developed under the influence of periodical fire as a result of volcanic action in the past [note this bizarre reason! – i.e. he’s got the right idea but the wrong reason!], the vegetation of Somaliland is not fire tolerant to the same degree.” [also, I think it’s a matter of trying to compare different veg. zones; much of the pyric grasslands and savanna of E.Afr. have far better rainfall, & the areas comparable to the N.Som. vegetation, viz. the NE bushlands, are not thought of as pyric at all].

                  The general impression is that a great part of the deterioration of Brit. Som. veg. has been in recent yrs, but is progressing rapidly and likely serious & probably irreparable loss will ensue; this is particularly true of the A. bussei zone.

                  Remedial measures  Earlier researchers, viz. Peck, McKinnon, Robertson, & the present author, are agreed that restoration of the natural plant cover in Brit. Somaliland entails 2 essential steps:

                 (1) a scheme of grazing control, whereby deteriorated areas see grazing deferred to dry-season use

                 (2) prevent stock increase beyond the land’s carrying capacity.

                “There can be little doubt that if these steps can be successfully taken the problem will be solved.” [Sounds easy, huh, like a recipe.  But think about it, & such management entails a lot of research to get the necessary numbers, and a lot of PR, and even then it likely won’t be successfully implemented.]

                  1. Protection from wet-season grazing “has been proved as a means of bringing about recovery of the vegetation in a number of countries, including South and East Africa.”  Grazing reserves in the 1930s in N Somalia were demarcated & implemented as dry-season reserves.  “The effect of seasonal closure for periods of only 3 or 4 years has persisted to a marked degree and provides ample proof that recovery can be attained by this method of control.”

                  “The provision of alternative wet-season pasturage is implicit in the grazing scheme.  As far as possible, the scheme should be fitted into former traditional native practice and it should be based on an investigation of tribal organisation in regard to migration… In the early stages of control enforced protection of the closed areas will be necessary, and this will involve considerable financial expenditure.  The aim should be, however, gradually to hand over the responsibility to the tribal authorities and so to reduce direct control by Government.” [Note how all this presages the current situation!  Every one of the several important points implicit or explicit in the above quote has direct relevance in today’s management schemes.  This is a very important quote, ± requisite in any treatment of range management in CR]

                  Edwards continues: “The difficulties which beset such a policy in the initial stages are appreciated, but it is well to realise that if recovery is attained by the measures suggested, its maintenance cannot indefinitely be ensured by an elaborate government organisation outside the social structure of the country. Only when the people themselves are capable of assuming the responsibility, with the guidance and assistance of Government, will the final goal be reached. It appears that recent policy in detribalising grazing areas and water supplies has gone far to produce an attitude of ‘every man for himself and the devil take the hindermost’. This is, unfortunately, a disastrous result of Pax Britannica in many parts of Africa. The position is concisely stated in general terms by G.V. Jacks of the Imperial Bureau of Soil Science in a recent article on soil conservation as follows:- ‘It has been proved beyond doubt that the individual, working by and for himself and in open competition with his fellows, is incapable of preserving the fertility of the prairie environment; sooner or later, he must destroy the soil in the struggle to maintain his position in society, whereas a co-operating community of farmers acts spontaneously in such a way as to preserve its social base, the land.’ This statement is just as true of Somaliland as of the United States of America”  This is the tragedy of the commons thing, ‘refreshed’ or popularized in sci. circles much later by Hardin.

                  Suggests using the Haud as alternate wet-season grazing while the N vegetation recovers, and is the traditional alternative grazing ground of the CR tribes; without its use the recover of the interior is impossible, and it is a fortunate circumstance, notes Edwards, that such a superior vegetation should be within reach.  He also suggests that the Haud can take far more utilization than it has; I’m not sure how he arrives at this conclusion, without any experimental or analytic data, but he notes that it is scarcity of permanent water that has protected this vegetation from overuse, and that the particular soil and vegetation are “specially adapted” for use as wet-season grazing reserves.

                  Greater use of the Haud will require water development, notably temporary WPs for use during the wet season.  “It is emphasised that the development should be of temporary water which dries up soon after the rains have ceased, rather than wells which would tend to induce the people to linger.” [Note presaging of this problem in CR hawd, & the specific problem of YIC]

                  Seasonal protection of vegetation is rated far more important than measures to reduce direct destruction of trees or reduce grass burning.  Lopping will be less prevalent when range condition improves, though fuel/charcoal use is a problem; “tree destruction should be resolutely suppressed by legislation.”  Prevention of grass fires may be more of a problem, mainly due to lack of gov. control, and may have to be a self-policing effort of tribal organizations.

                  2. Limiting stock populations implies disposal of the excess through commercial channels. “This assumes the development of a new outlook on the part of the Somali and a readiness to exchange animals for other commodities… Ultimate success cannot be attained by enforced reduction which takes no account of the mental attitude of the people.”  A suggestion that possiblities of creating a changed outlook should be sought through the medium of the small trader.

                  “Suggestions for the solution of this problem contained in various reports all deal with the possibility of discovering markets and organising the sale of stock. This conception does not, in my opinion, appreciate the root cause of the difficulty. External markets are obviously necessary to absorb the increase, but the provision of an outlet for stock does not imply the necessary outlook on the part of the stock owner…

                  “Voluntary reduction of stock can only be attained by development of the community, both towards responsibility for the welfare of the vegetation of their own particular territory and towards an appreciation of forms of wealth outside stock. The latter, at any rate, is a difficult proposition in a semi-arid contry populated by nomadic tribes. In most countries the small trader is an essential initial factor in this commercial development. Both he and his goods are singularly lacking in Somaliland. The explanation of this is difficult, but any or all of the following reasons may be responsible; (a) insecurity in outlying areas, which is a reflection upon the degree of law and order which British administration has been able to attain, under admittedly difficult circumstances; (b) shortcomings on the part of existing indigenous traders through lack of encouragement and opportunity for external comercial contacts; (c) the inherent limitations of the Somali as a potential purchaser, which renders difficult the selection of acceptable commodities. It is believed that a careful investigation of the whole question will indicate measures which would bring about great improvement.”

                  Taxation suggested as a (perhaps not very good) incentive to stock disposal.

                  Shoats constitute the greatest danger to the vegetation.  “Sheep in particular are responsible for a great deal of the damage near permanent water, where they are permitted to consume the first shoots of the grass as they appear season after season.”  Note the unguarded statement re. camel: “The camel with its browsing habits need scarcely be considered.” (The double mistake, that camel is ± only a browser with no impact on grass, & no implication of overbrowsing – especially e.g. yicib-type losses)

                  Shoat condition in N Somalia is better than in other parts of E.Afr., likely due to low incidence of intestinal worms in these very dry areas.

                  The problem of land deterioration in the vicinity of agricultural areas may be overcome with a plan which depends “upon security of tenure of the mixed holdings and upon the availability of a more or less permanent form of fence.”  What is being proposed here is individual land ownership or at any rate stewardship.  This will allow a rotation of cultivated plots to grass, and use of fallow only or mainly in the dry season, i.e. dry-season grazing reserves of individual farmers.  This Edwards calls semi-permanent agr., combining cattle and cultivation.

                  A number of recommendations enumerated (± all touched upon above).

Farah, Ahmed Yusuf  1994  The milk of the Boswellia forest: frankincense production among the pastoral Somali.  EPOS, Dept. Social & Economic Geography, Uppsala Univ., 142p.

            Simple map shows 4 frankincense-growing areas in N Som, a big one centrally and 3 smaller ones toward the Horn.  Biblio heavily references IM Lewis who evidently influenced the author. Poetry interspersed, and gets pride of place it deserves in any Somali sociology.  Editor (TiiaRiitta Hjort af Ornäs) says this bk shows how the FR sector in Somalia applies a value system derived from the dominating camel culture and can only be understood in rel to it.

            (For botanical information, refer also to Thulin & Warfa 1987.)

            To understand FR you need to understand common property categories: nool (animate or pastoral wealth) and mood (inanimate).  Also understand the camel economic standard: rival community poet spokesmen derive metaphors and images from the pastoral culture in the glorification of their economies. FR collectors describe their resource & industry as being as important as camel herds.

            Persistent failure of cooperatives in FR due to econ differences and unbalanced relations between local traders and their kin client collectors.

            An estimated 10,000 families depend primarily on incense gathering (in Somalia I assume).

            Narrow torrid N coastal strip (Guban) and the highlands (Ogo) within which FR is produced in the maritime escarpment. The interior plateau = the Haud, where pastoralists congregate during wet season. (Here’s another characterization of the hawd, and that E-Hiraan yicib zone fits this definition)

            FR in W part of escarp is claimed to be slightly redder than the white R of the East.

            “Frankincense fields which mostly lie in vast expanses of rugged and rocky mountain terrain understandably defy precise demarcation.”  The collection areas (xiji) or fields are territorially-bounded, and belong to a core (mostly <10) of agnatic families owning one or more incense fields by inheritance. Myrrh trees, in contrast, are very widely distributed in NE trop Afr, and are not subject to such prescriptive rights as the more valuable FR trees. Open access applies to myrrh trees, just as to pasture and water, therefore exploitation is causing considerable damage to the trees. Does he mean tree condition, or tree loss, or what? Two types of myrrh based on production method: the superior hussul is collected from natural exudation, zara after bark scarification.

            Both FR and Commiphora gums (incl myrrh) have been harvested for centuries, which makes it difficult to explain the sharp distinction in ownership rights. He (unwittingly?) answers this forthwith: FR is very much localized, and it is more expensive.

            “The importance of the frankincense trade in the history of the whole Somali nation can hardly be overestimated. [This very sentence overestimates it because Somalis are prideful pastoralists, their almost sacred object is the camel, and gum-resin collecting is definitely 2^nd fiddle where Boswellia grows; and anyway what people were here in the time of the classical civilizations anyway?] According to the Somali historian A. A. Hersi, the northeastern coast of Somaliland derived its importance from the ancient trade of incense goods. Myrrh and frankincense were produced substantially in southern Arabia and the Gulf of Aden maritime coastal region of northeastern Somalia. Valued for their medicinal properties, pleasant odour and sacred religious utility, gums and resins of Somaliland were exported since ancient times to classical civilisations, the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Persians and Macedonians. To acquire these esteemed aromatic forest products ancient peoples of these civilisations were reported to pay high prices and even periodically organised fabulous expeditions to reach these exotic goods in their original sources, southern Arabia and the Horn of Africa.”

            “The frankincense trade…stimulates nostalgic feelings among Somalis, particularly the inhabitants of the geographical frankincense region. Somalis boast of an early mercantile culture, and they’re “interested in accounts of the pharaonic Queen Hateshepsut’s fabulous expedition to the Horn of Africa in the 15^th century B.C.”

            In modern times i.e. from 19^th century, Aden was the major export node for Somali gums. A parallel livestock trade to Aden, esp thru Berbera, developed following the British occupation of Aden in 1839. Unfortunately the trade relations were unbalanced; Somali merchants speak of oppression by Arab patrons and the dominant business community of Aden. Somalis were at a disadvantage, partly because they were concerned with delay in selling FR due to deterioration of quality. Before Aden, frankincense was exported to Bombay to be re-exported to Europe. From start of 20^th century Yemeni nationals in Aden may have monopolized the FR trade. Somali sellers were disadvantaged in various ways – official duty, unofficial tribute (e.g. 12%), improper weighing, backdated cheques, pressure to buy shoddy goods in exchange, and even social tricks such as buyers refusing to see sellers. When Somali brokers finally became established they weren’t much better. Another set of problems inflicted on the producers was mechanisms of exploitation by local traders against their kin collectors.

            Attempts at cooperatives and regulation failed. Official stats on FR sales are unreliable: a lot is exported illegally.

            Meydi is sorted into 7 commercial grades of which the first 4 are exported to Arabia. No regular grading system exists for Commiphora gums. Saudi Arabia is the chief mkt for meydi, importing >80% of the total export value, a high proportion being the most valuable chewing grades, and as such a prestige product socially valued there and mainly consumed by women. Cheaper commercial grades are exported for use mostly as burning incense.

            Somali type olibanum beeyo is produced in Somalia & Ogaden. The chief market is Europe where used by the perfumery industry and China where it has some med uses.  Eritrea and Ethiopia were the trad sources of this frankincense (presumably B. papyrifera). This particular type is used as an ingredient in pharmaceutical products in China, a chewing gum in N.Afr., in trad med in some Arab countries e.g. taken for stomach ailments, and in Eu mainly in church ritual esp in countries with Greek orthodox populations, and also exported for church incense to Latin Am.

            B. serrata from NW India is mainly used domestically for making incense sticks. Its fragrance is inferior to that of B. papyrifera.

            Somalis in the producing area of FR think that it is used in the military industry in the West, there is even the belief that it forms the explosive power of weapons, even nuclear bombs.

            China is the biggest consumer of exported Commiphora gums.

            Relies on Lewis 1961 for genealogy, e.g. 6 major clan-families of which the Dir, Isaaq, Hawiye & Daarood are predominantly pastoral while the Digil & Raxanweyn are southern agropastoralists. There are 2 categories of wealth, nool (pastoral-type viz. livestock) and mood (all other).  In the sedentary south the corresponding categories are mobile and immobile. The camel is the most coveted form of wealth, the ‘capital resource’.  “The fate of the Somalis is thought to be inextricably linked to the existence of the camel herds. It is very difficult for a pastoralist to contemplate life without camels.”  A famous poet Abi Gaheyr placed camel politics above the rule of Islam, though the camel is not sacred in the literal sense. Camels underpin as well as lubricate the socioeconomic life of Somali pastoralists (pk).  The Somali pony was valuable in the past.

            A pretty myth is how FR groves came to be. They were cruising thru the sky, got very tired, landed and stayed. They had been created for resource-poor communities in lands unsuitable for agr or pastoral production. Collection areas, xiji, are described as fields. They are plots of land subject to rights of collection. In poetic allusion they are described as ‘camels’, an exalted ranking up there with the national treasure; and the resin is likened to camel milk. The analogy goes further, with productive trees called meydi, a popular name for a camel yielding plenty of milk, while a less productive tree is biajaar, a camel producing less milk. In some ways they even excel over camels, being resistant to hunger and more economical of minimal rainfall of 10 cm/yr.

            B. frereana grows on cliffs, clinging to boulders by its bulbous base. The reverent attitude to such a plant which surely is the work of Allah militates against experimentation and propagation. The establishment of state experimental FR farms was seen by many as meddling with the omnipotent. The equating of FR with camels, and other images and metaphors, reflects the desire of localized systems to attain an independent identity, a validation within the pastoral supremacy of Somali culture – even though the FR industry is surely much older than camel husbandry (pk part).  It’s an attempt to place FR within the superior ‘animate’ category of wealth (and it’s sort of transitional between pastoralism and agr.).

            The land tenure system in Somalia is based on clan organization, but during the Siyaad Barre regime it was illegal to discuss clans so info on land tenure especially its evolution was hard to research. Furthermore, info about land tenure and registration was sensitive as it involved the interests of rich urban-based settlers and powerful interest groups with vested interests in land. (I’m sure the same is or will happen in E.Afr., land privatization will favor more powerful and better capitalized farmers, businessmen and speculators.)  What has happened with FR production has been a tendency away from traditional share-cropping toward a seasonal rent arrangement. The share-cropping system apportions the seasonal production between producer and land right-holder and is highly lucrative to the owner but it is becoming more difficult to maintain. One reaction of owners has been to greatly raise the rent. Official 1980s policy aiming to abolish share-cropping and tenancy arrangements had very little impact due to tenacity of tradition, owner opposition, lack of incentive for gov officials to implement the law.

            Free access to water and fodder is a cultural element of Somali pastoralism, this promotes widest possible use and is reinforced by a strongly held Islamic tradition demanding such public use of natural resources and proscribing restrictions to use. Artificial WPs, notably traditional lineage wells, barkads (cement-lined tanks) and ballis (artificial ponds) are subject to prescribed rights.  Barkads and ballis are the property of those who invest in their construction, viz the extended fam and not the lineage. They are used for fam needs and may have a commercial basis, surplus water being sold. Though land i.e. forage and water are free, customary association is recognized(?) between clan and particular territory. It has arisen thru “frequent exploitation, effective occupation, implicit state tolerance of the status quo, and the existence of the traditional wells and trading villages.”  Territoriality is more strongly developed and institutionalized by tradition in S Som.

            In contemporary Somalia as in some other developing countries, the crucial issue is the antithesis (sic) between customary norms which maintain group control over resources, and statutory laws that tend to deny or undermine trad regulations, e.g. legislation declaring land to be the property of the state.

            Territorial rights to incense fields are held by groups of agnatic families, comparable to individual rights held by cultivators over a plot of land. The rights apply only to the FR; pasturage is communal i.e. free-access.  Oral tradition recalls start-up problems in how to allocate FR exploitation rights. Stockholders were worried that FR and stock production are incompatible so large-scale gum production would bring havoc to herds. FR foliage is liked by stock but access is limited by FR producers, though the FR system has made some crucial concessions to the dominant pastoral system. FR lopping for stock has been retained as a right of pastoralists, and all resources other than FR are free for exploitation.

            I find it kind of ironic as well as specious that oral tradition speaks of a shift from pure pastoralism to specialized rights for FR production. This “economic transformation of previously pastoral groups” was resisted by the richer pastoralists who worried what FR production would do to their camel-herding traditions. What’s ironic is that FR production has a far more ancient history than herding especially camel-herding. In fact, for this reason I doubt this oral history. FR collecting long predated camel-herding in the Horn of Africa, and when camels arrived this new production system was interpolated into the already ancient FR production system. This ch.3 on resource ownership is therefore weakened by the illogic of historical evolution of rights and privileges; furthermore it is repetitive and requires tightening and clarification.

            Conocarpus lancifolius  Damas (Som).  Trees in Erigavo region valleys were subject to owner rights, similar to frankincense trees. They yielded timber for export to Aden but after mid-20^th century it lost its export value, which made it easier for the Siyaad Barre gov to take control over the trees. Henceforth potential uses would have to obtain a permit from the gov, they didn’t need authorization of the previous owners.

            Author found 2 cases in which FR fields were exchanged for wives (i.e. the FR rights were the bride-wealth or dowry).

            Most FR gatherers are semi-settled, herd-poor tenants who rent the property (i.e. the FR field) from absentee pastoral holders. Because FR collecting is seen as more difficult than pastoralism, and perceived to profit traders more than producers, collectors take the earliest opportunity to change occupations.

            All FR fields have distinctive names. Natural physiographic features act as boundaries; stone piles are erected on some featureless boundaries. Field size varies, and seasonal FR output ranges from 200-2000 kg. Yields are expressed in camel-load (150 km). Collectors are alert to FR use and misuses: they recognize scars from bark removal for tannin extraction, they see signs of lopping, and tree removal leaves a white coloration on the rocky site which is visible from a distance. (Too bad yicib was not owned; or was it?…)

            Tripartite system of earnings distribution: to owners, to creditors (merchants), and to collectors. Another system was wage labor. A third was field rental without entering into a share-cropping or wage arrangement. By and large the system disadvantages and exploits the collector.

            Keeps talking about ‘cultivation’ in relation to FR production but that’s not correct, it’s simply harvesting.

            Seasonality and tapping cycles are 2 separate yet linked themes in FR management. Nothing on growth of FR trees, pop dynamics, size-class distribution, areal distribution, reproduction, stability.

            A chapter on ‘Frankincense sector poetry’.  Poetry is extremely deep and important in Somali culture.  It has political motives, viz to influence the opinion of kinsmen or the public at large. It plays a crucial role in clan politics. Poetry is as important in spreading ideas and ideology among the Somalis as the media in the West (part pk).  Some poetry has a more conventional role, praise and work sentiments.  As for frankincense poetry, it uses livestock motifs – since livestock is the default world-view basis of Somalis.  Such poetry glorifies the frankincense economy, even by pointing out its merits in comparison to stock-keeping.  Here is part of a poem from Bosaso district, elaborating some important features of the frankincense economy:

It (frankincense forests) does not require transhumance into the interior of Nugaal

Nor does it pasture on grass and it refrains from water altogether

It is not persistently moved after the fresh grass of the latest rain…

Our Boswellia forests never fail to yield some reserve resin (milk)

Which is continually milked out for economic exploitation…

May Allah not deprive me of the frankincense forests for they are my herds.

            The demanding task of farming is seen as punishment imposed upon sedentary humans for Eve’s sin.  But farmers, just as frankincense collectors, glorify their work through verse, often through analogy between camel-herding and farming.  The buying of sorghum by pastoralists in the dry season is seen as a mark of superiority of farmers.  Nonetheless, the pervasiveness of nomadic-life figures of speech underlines the extent to which pastoralism permeates the thought of Somali society.

            “Honour is a man’s prerogative in male-dominated Somali society. To label a man as possessing woman’s attributes is one of the worst forms of abuse.”  Poetic curses, i.e. invective verses, may liken the targeted man as one with women’s virtues.  Rhetoric, specifically through verse, seems to be the acme of high art in Somali society.

            The 2^nd-last ch discusses the problems with the cooperative created by the Siyaad Barre regime to collectivize production and marketing of frankincense.  Many confusing levies & deductions, organizational problems, etc. Therefore a parallel [black] mkt developed, wherein superior grades of incense were sold to private traders and the inferior grades to the public enterprise.  Corrupt gov officials made deals with traders.  As with the traditional free-enterprise system, the actual producer benefited the least.  The author’s conclusion is that the cooperative movement has not been a success: inefficiency, corruption and graft are the major impediments to the establishment of an effective modern enterprise.

Hyphaene thebaica  Fiber woven into baskets used in collecting frankincense.

Boswellia  Meydi is not thought to have significant medicinal virtues, possibly partly because it is powerful (strong).  A beeyo solution is taken for VD and back problems, also chronic cough, polio and chest congestion; and applied to wounds.

            Meydi is used as a chewing gum, having a pleasant, perfumed and somewhat medicinal taste, protects the teeth from decay and is also thought to strengthen the gums. Saudis seem to cherish this chewing gum more than Somalis. They claim that meydi prevents stomach worms.

            In Somali theology(?), different saar spirits belonging to different transcendental groups are thought to be appeased by particular brands of perfumes or incense. It may be dangerous to offer the wrong perfume, it may offend the spirits who take revenge by inflicting more harm on the patient. “The subordination of ritual incense to perfumes in the spirit possession cult in Somalia could be explained by the fact that saar is denounced by orthodox Islam as ‘pagan’, and by men in northern Somalia as a foible of women engaging in ‘superstitious expensive exercises’.”  Broadly speaking, 2 types of possessing spirits are recognized, holy and unholy; both consume particular perfumes and foods and differ in response to incense offering. Ritual incense is thought appropriate to holy spirits, also saints, while unholy spirits respond to favored perfumes but do not like ritual incense. Incense is not used in witchcraft and other malevolent magical rites. Fortune tellers, female usually, are sometimes derogatorily called fooxiso, i.e. ‘incense burner’, and signifying the importance of incense burning in the rite.  They may recite magical spells while frankincense is burned in the domestic censer. The crux of the rite is in reading the pattern of the ascending smoke.  Domestic incense-burning is believed to guard the dwelling from malicious spirits as well as attracting holy spirits, the guardians of faithful Muslims.  Incense is also burned at the tombs of saints, aimed at winning the favor of the saints so they will intervene on behalf of the people. (Note the radical difference from trad African attitudes to ancestors, i.e. ‘ancestor worship’, which aims to appease the spirits so they won’t harm them.)

“The mysterious appeal incense has had throughout human history and with which it is still connected in Somalia, seems to derive primarily from its ritual importance in divine worship.”  Incenses and perfumes were also found necessary for comfortable living in mediterranean and Middle East urban areas with their disagreeable smells from putrefaction.  Domestic fumigation is widespread among Somalis and urban people prefer uunsi incense.  The urban poor, as well as rural villagers and nomadic families, fumigate with foox, the lowest commercial grade of beeyo, less fragrant than uunsi. Meydi produces inferior ritual incense foox than does beeyo.  Foox consists of bark flakes, powder and tiny pieces of incense. Foox is claimed to be both pleasant and able to dispel any bad smell.  Incense is also burned to repel flying insects during meals.  Women use incense to fumigate  their clothes and hair for the pleasant odor it imparts.

A minor use in its native habitat is as an energy source. Collectors burn incense tears inside the dark rock-caves where they stay during the night; the flame usually provides enough light. It can be only an emergency practice, as it is not economical to use expensive frankincense as a light source.  Meydi emits a steady light comparable to candlelight and is more suitable than beeyo which bursts into mass flame and smoke.

            Small incense balls are sometimes used domestically as fire-making catalysts, e.g. when fuel is damp: they instantly burst into flame and help the wet wood catch fire. The inflammable property of incense is recognized to the extent that passengers on trucks carrying incense are banned from smoking.

            Young leaf protein 7%, oil 3%, fibre 25%, CaO >3%, phosophorus pentoxide 0.3% (UN Tech Assistance Prog. 1952 qb…).  Leaf is good stock fodder. Camels browse the foliage while goats on their hind legs browse the lower foliage. Leaf of seedling and smaller tree is devoured by camel and shoats. Branches may be illicitly lopped or trees cut down to provide dry-season fodder for animals incapacitated by drought or disease.

            Bark contains tannin, therefore is removed to dye and disinfect milking and water vessels: the vessels are smoked.  Thought especially important to tan goatskin water containers. But this is a destructive form of exploitation.

Commiphora myrrha  The most important medicinal use of myrrh is thought to be its disinfectant ability, e.g. having a drying and healing effect on wounds, skin diseases, post-circumcised girls – and the smoke is also used.  A drop of myrrh under the tongue is used for throat infections, common cold, and throat and gland pain.  It is bitter-tasting (indicated by the Arabic murr and Somali malmal). A myrrh solution is taken by men desiring to reduce their sexual desire, thus for example it is used by unmarried adult theology students. “In northern Somalia, it is a joke to taunt the sexually weak by asking if they have been treated with myrrh.”  Not used as incense; the smell is said to be offensive and suggestive of burning rubber. It is used to drive snakes away from nomadic huts.  A chief ingredient of ink.

Macfayden, WA  1950  Vegetation patterns in the semi-desert plains of British Somaliland.  Geog. J. 116: 199-211.

                  Studied airphotos of 2 semi-desert areas, the Haud (S Brit Som and extending into Ogaden and Cent Som acc to his map) and the Sawl or Sorl Haud (E Brit Som and extending into N Somalia) plains. The Haud is c119,000 kmsq, at c7-9 30 N, 43-48 E. The N & W boundaries bounded by limestones, the S & W boundaries “are topographically indefinite.” The terrain of the Haud is mainly plains which to the eye appear flat though in fact very gently rolling and sloping slightly to the SE. The surface is a thick cover of red sandy soil covering mostly sandstones, with limestones in the N and limestones and gypseous shales in the E. The veg is bush [bushland], also some stretches of grassy plain, bans.

                  The Sawl Haud covers c21,000 kmsq. The Sawl s.str. is red sandy soil over limestone, with bush, but a central area of anhydrite, the Haded, only has a sparse cover of coarse and rather short turfy grass with occasional open scrub and mostly treeless.

                  Two rainy seasons, the Gu in Apr-Jun and the Karan and Dhair in Sep-Nov. Temporary water in ballehs, ponds forming in natural or artificial depressions, and no permanent water over most of the plains and general absence of defined drainage channels. Due to lack of permanent water, Somali pastoralists pasture their camels and shoats only in the rainy seasons and for much of the year the Haud and Sawl Haud are practically uninhabited by man though having a fairly abundant fauna including lion, leopard, cheetah, hyena, jackal, many species of antelope, warthog, ostrich and other birds.

Some airphotos show remarkable rhythmic patterns, ‘vegetation arcs’ as he has called them, recalling a tiger skin or rhythmic ripples of sand. But they represent the rhythmical arrangement of concentrations of vegetation – trees, shrubs, herbs and thick grass. They indicate precisely the direction of the very low slopes, hence useful in watershed studies. These veg arcs are very clear in much of the Sawl s str., and in the N & E parts of the Haud but largely lacking elsewhere (i.e. southward). In areas of vegetation arcs, nearly all the vegetation is concentrated in bands of cover with the ground between practically destitute of vegetation. The vegetation is normally densest along the upslope edge, becoming sparser toward the downslope side. Extinct arcs are occasionally found, their position marked by a line of dead trees on bare ground, the accompanying vegetation having vanished. The arcs are invariably oriented at right angles to the direction of drainage, and are convex upslope. The ground level is not appreciably raised in the vegetation strips. The strip interval ranges from c70-276 m, averaging 158 m. The width of the vegetation strips is 20-36(-76) m, the intervening desert from (25)70-146 m, thus the vegetation strips are c4 times narrower than the intervening bare sections. The average rhythm is c160 m of which vegetation accounts for 30-40 m; where strongly developed, the rhythm may rise to c250 m of which vegetation c50 m and bare c200 m. The length of arcs may be up to 2 km or more, but mostly from less than 0.5 to 1 km. He suggests that water flow is responsible for creating these arcs; wind as agency is out of the question. The arcs are long-established and stable, with no soil erosion.

Documented with some good oblique airphotos and a couple of ground photos.

332 Schizachyrium kelleri (Andropogon cyrtocladus)  DUR  Sometimes a thick growth is the main component of vegetation arcs in the Haud of N&Cent Somalia and Ogaden

Greenwood, JEGW  1957  The development of vegetation patterns in Somaliland Protectorate.  Geog. J. 123: 465-473.

                  First refers to Macfadyen 1950a,b on veg arcs in Somaliland Protectorate. Visited in 1955-56 and saw veg arc terrain from the ground. “The existence of arcs would probably have gone unnoticed without prior location on aerial photographs.” (This suggests the subtlety of the phenomenon from the ground. I found the presence of arcs not at all obvious and if not aware that they may be present, they can easily be overlooked.)  Veg arcs are on terrain with a significant percentage of clay, and have not been seen on sands. Veg arcs have been noted on airphotos from Kenya & Tanganyika, restricted to areas of rainfall not much exceeding 500 mm.

                  ‘Vegetation arc’ is partly misleading since these series of bands are only arcuate in some places notably in low hilly country, and on plains they may approximate to straight lines.

                  Tries to explain the development of arcs in relation to runoff and percolation of water. Suggests that arcs migrate upslope. Not much of a paper, I don’t see any systematic data, not even on soils which are said to be a key.

                  Some good airphotos of arc areas.

Boaler, SB & CAH Hodge  1962  Vegetation stripes in Somaliland.  J. Ecol. 50: 465-474.

Using Gillett 1941 veg classif, stripes occur mainly in Acacia bussei/Chrysopogon aucheri CT and A. tortilis/Andropogon cyrtocladus CT – as written by Bowen & Bird 88. Don’t I have enough on stripes, e.g. their 1964 pap.

Note that stripes can be both in bushland and grassland. In bushland the spacing is c90-180 m and in grassland c45 m (though I’m a bit confused by their description). Note Photo 2 in which scattered trees, mostly aligned along stripes but they are far from complete tree stripes. They’re just dotted along the veg-stripe portion rather than between- stripe portion.

They note that these patterns are “Nearly unrecognizable on the ground” but “show clearly on air photographs.” Yes, that was my experience; it was often hard to recognize that I was standing in a patterned landscape. (cf. CR veg)

147 Acacia bussei  A study in N Som found vegetation-stripe landscapes most numerous and most striking (from the air) in Acacia bussei/Chrysopogon plumulosus open woodland. The vegetated stripes are up to 180 m across with a sparsely vegetated interstripe lane c45 m wide. The trees may be up to 9 m high with surface root systems extending up to 45 m from the trees. A. bussei is also present in Acacia tortilis/Schizachyrium kelleri stripes.

332 Chrysopogon plumulosus (‘aucheri’)  A study in N Som found vegetation-stripe landscapes most numerous and most striking (from the air) in Acacia bussei/Chrysopogon plumulosus open woodland. This grass forms the greater part of the ground layer in the bands, though it is more frequent in the open than within the shade of tree crowns. This grass may also form dense untreed arcs, and here the vegetated stripes and bare lanes are of about equal width. Occasional stunted acacias may also be found in the stripes. The soil of vegetated stripes has higher clay content than that of the bare lanes.

Boaler, SB & CAH Hodge  1964  Observations on vegetation arcs in the Northern Region, Somali Republic.  J. Ecol. 52: 511-544.

                  Such patterned veg, comprising veg bands separated by nearly bare ground, was first appreciated by Macfadyen 1950 from study of airphotos in N Somalia. He showed that such patterns occurred over very large areas of the Haud, and the bands ran approximately parallel to contour and appeared concave downslope in valleys. Such patterning had been noticed in N Somalia by Gillett 1941 and later Gilliland 1952 but neither seemed to recognize that it might be extensive. Arcs have also been recognized or suspected in Sudan, W.Africa, Arabia, Iraq, Australia.

                  Bands clearly show up on airphotos though are sometimes hard to distinguish at ground level, though it’s usually enough to stand on the roof of a car to make the outlines clear. The uphill edge is clearer and more abrupt than the downhill boundary, since scattered plants are often found on the bare ground below the arc and dead plants are often found toward the downhill edge of the arc.

                  Slope averages 1 in 240, ranging from 1 in 100 to 1 in 450.  Ground surface covered ranges from 25-60%. Arc width varies from 15-70 m, and rhythmic interval 45-256 m.

                  Some arcs include woody plants but all those observed were dominated by either Schizachyrium kelleri or Chrysopogon aucheri.  The narrow front (uphill) zone is often dominated by stoloniferous clump grasses, mainly Sporobolus. Table 5 has a long list of spp in arcs, simply as +/-. A few are common in all zones of arcs (front, body, bare) but may are characteristic of or restricted to one particular zone. The front is the richest zone with 73 spp, the body of arc had 49 spp, the bare zone 22 spp.

                  The cover within the arcs is by no means dense. Some limited point-transect work came up with 7.5-8% cover within the body zone, and 20% in the front zone of Chrysopogon arcs.

                  Soil (from ltd studies) is loam or clay loam, with increasing clay with depth, and the subsoil is clay. The surface has a thin crust, sufficiently impermeable to cause rainwater to run off (except where broken e.g. by hooves). During a rainstorm water moves downslope as a shallow sheet and collects as a pond (to 2.5 cm deep) at the front of the arc, gradually infiltrating the body of the arc. Infiltration into the soil is deeper within the vegetated body of the arc than outside it.

                  Are arcs advancing upslope? Conflicting info: seem to be moving in some places but stable elsewhere. Likely that both stable and moving arc systems exist in N Somalia. Fire, overgrazing or prolonged drought may destroy arcs.

332 Schizachyrium kelleri  Tussocks to >2 m and diameter >1 m at ground level; the base may be raised as much as 10 cm above the ground surface by soil collecting between the culms. Not found on gypseous soils. The typical dominant of vegetation arcs (banding) found in plains and valleys in N Somalia where rainfall is <c250 mm. The woody stems are used to make the mats used for covering Somalis’ portable homes.

332 Chrysopogon aucheri  Tussocks to 70 cm across and may be 1 m high when flowering. Perhaps the most valuable fodder plant in N Somalia, the leaves are eaten even at the height of the dry season when they are dry. Occurs both on gypseous and non-gypseous soils, and mainly where rainfall is >c250 mm. In N Somalia is the dominant of some vegetation arcs (banding)

147 Acacia bussei  Some A. bussei woodland exhibits banding (vegetation arcs), with Chrysopogon aucheri or Schizachyrium kelleri as the dominant grass

147 Acacia etbaica  Some A. etbaica woodland in N Somalia exhibits banding (vegetation arcs), with Chrysopogon aucheri as the dominant grass

136 Euphorbia robecchii  The commonest tree in some Schizachyrium kelleri vegetation arcs (banding) in N Somalia

147 Acacia tortilis  The commonest tree in some Schizachyrium kelleri vegetation arcs (banding) in N Somalia

332 Cynodon dactylon  In N Somalia, the dominant on old dung heaps wherever nomadic stock-owners have camped

Hemming, CF  1965  Vegetation arcs in Somaliland.  J. Ecol. 53: 57-67.

                  Veg arcs occur widely in the southern part of N Somalia. Not found on coastal plains. Study site SW of Las Anod. New colonization is at upslope edge, while dead trees/shrubs are found below the downslope edge. Body of arc Schizachyrium kelleri. Much rather inconclusive speculation about veg dynamics, effect of physical factors, grazing, etc. I doubt his explanation for the genesis of arcs through initial overgrazing (of presumably a Chrysopogon grassland).

                  “It is suggested [by whom?] that the arcs have a water supply equivalent to about twice the rainfall.” (That’s why perennial grass can thrive well below 250 mm, e.g. 150 mm near Las Anod. Arcs are a natural water-harvesting system.)

332 Schizachyrium kelleri  The dominant plant of all vegetation arcs (banding) seen in N Somalia. It forms the body of the arcs and other species are found growing within the clumps or colonizing the edges. Small stools of Schizachyrium may be found in the colonization zone at the upslope edge of the vegetation bands, along with other grasses. The body of the arc supports low trees and shrubs, which are largely dead below the lower edge of the arc.——Aside from vegetation arcs, in N Somalia this grass is found only in areas receiving some inflow of water, and is particularly common around small depressions where pools form during the rains, and along sides of tracks which act as seasonal watercourses. The enhancement of water infiltration, both in vegetation arcs and small depressions, suggests that Schizachyrium clumps “represent a climax corresponding to twice the rainfall actually received over the whole area.”

147 Acacia bussei  In N Somalia vegetation arcs (bands) are found mainly within the A. bussei open woodland zone. This acacia has been decimated over parts of its range; areas of several square miles may be covered by dead trees on bare soil, with the only live ones found in remnant patches of grass, often in vegetation arcs dominated by Schizachyrium kelleri.

196i Acacia-Commiphora vegetation may be associated with vegetation arcs (banding) in parts of N Somalia.  Hemming (1965) described vegetation arcs of Schizachyrium kelleri with acacias, commiphoras and some other woody species within the body of the arc. Woody plants below the lower edge of the arc were largely dead (suggesting that the arc microenvironment enables woody plants to grow, likely through enhanced water infiltration).

036 Boscia minimifolia  In an area SW of Las Anod, N Somalia, with c150 mm rainfall, a component of Schizachyrium kelleri vegetation arcs (banding), and the only woody species alive in numbers on the bare ground between the vegetation bands. Most other woody species (deciduous) only thrived within the vegetation bands and were dead on the bare intervening ground.

Stafford, JH & CL Collenette  1931  The Anglo-Italian Somaliland boundary.  Geog. J. 78(2): 102-121.

                  Has some excellent photos, incl a few vertical airphotos, showing the kind of product from the RAF-enabled survey of the border. Logistics of the survey w/ the Italian mission.

                  Sorl Haud is near the SE end of British Somaliland. It is a plateau sloping gently S for 100 miles till reaching the valley of the Nogal. S of Nogal is the Haud proper, also red soil like the Sorl and appears to be a continuation of the Sorl, with frequent limestone outcrops. Thick thornbush 10-15 ft high and sections of tall grass with scattered trees

“The Somalis are a nomad race…The men of certain tribes do emigrate, and are found in most parts of the world, but they all eventually find their way back to Somaliland and return to their karias and live the simple life again. Their main relaxation seems to be raiding the flocks of other tribes.” “The Somali is not a good motor driver; he cannot understand the use of gears or how to change down.”

Collenette, CL  1931  North-Eastern British Somaliland.  Kew Bul. (Bul. Misc. Info.) 1931: 401-414.

Botanist attached to boundary demarcation Commission.

                  Centrally in N Somalia, 3 units:

                   (1) Flat & narrow coastal plain on N side.

                   (2) The Al Hills, paralleling coast, 4000-7250 ft.

                   (3) Inland plateau, mainly 2000-3500 ft.

                  The higher N slopes of mts have much mist & cloud, and precipitation is a lot more too than the very arid coastal plain or the inland plateau which has very unreliable rainfall.  Highest zone of mts, 4000-6250 ft (& down to 3000 ft on N slope), is an almost unbroken cover of Buxus hild., comprising c90% of larger vegetation.  However, the Surud Mts which are 200 km W have no Buxus but evergreen forest and Dodonaea scrub.

                  Plateau veg, with limestone rocky soils, has Acacia spp dominant, also grasses; commonest succulents Aloe percrassa & Sarcostemma viminale.  On sandy soils Acacia tortilis is the only common tree, & largely confined to tugs as are the other plants.  On the plateau, shoats & camel “undoubtedly affect the composition of the vegetation in the principal grazing areas, where edible species lead a much more precarious existence than those which are protected or poisonous.” Also, in times of drought lopping and bending of Acacia and other stems.

                  Locusts (Schistocerca gregaria) periodically swarm, and important effect on vegetation, especially phenology – by eating buds, it much diminishes the leafing of following season.

                  Using local informants, “It was found that dried or withered specimens were rarely recognised, and that information was only satisfactory when obtained with the aid of large fresh specimens and from the actual plant in the field.”  Also, that plant names vary considerably. The names separate into 2 classes, the Darod tribes (Warsangeli, Mijertain, Dolbahanta etc.) and Ishaak (the W part of N Somalia). “The native Somali names which have hitherto been obtained by botanists [in Brit Som] are probably almost entirely Ishaak.”

Clifford, EHM  1936  The British Somaliland-Ethiopian boundary.  Geog. J. 87: 289-307.

                  Paper proper to p302, the rest is discussion.  RE Cheesman says the tribes in the region “are very savage; they do almost anything but eat you. They are not cannibals, but they have to be carefully and tactfully handled.”  Beeby Thompson, who was Advisor to the Ethiopian Gov on water development, says “It was a welcome surprise to discover that a large part of the Haud, which was believed to be waterless, is likely to yield important supplies of subsoil water…It will be possible to develop first-class water centres at many points, thereby diminishing the congestion of men and animals at a few places and lessening the evil of overgrazing.” That’s ironic, untrue: in fact water development would be the cause rather than cure to overgrazing.

                  The President (of the Roy. Geog. Society) Percy Cox says when he was in Somaliland in the early 1890s the Marar plain was alive with hartebeest and now hears that hardly one remains.

                  Arthur Hill, Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew, says that a good many years ago he had remarked how unfortunate it was that when the War Office or some other Gov Dept was sending commissions or expeditions to interesting parts of the world there was never an opportunity of attaching a botanist. Subsequently he had been able to send CL Collenette as Botanist to the first Boundary Commission and J Gillett as Botanist to the current Somaliland-Ethiopian Boundary Commission. Gillett brought back some 1600 specimens together with valuable notes on the vegetation (written up in Gillett 1941). His data extended our knowledge of the regional flora, linking it up with other parts of Africa. Not many new plants were found because Chiovenda had already explored the country [not physically I believe] and found many new species. (And so did Thulin much more recently.)

                  There was also a further section p.308-327 on ordnance survey maps namely methodology.

The paper begins with a short hist of the Horn. During his 1924 visit to Eu, Haile Selassie expressed the desire to see all the frontiers of Ethiopia demarcated. GB took him seriously, negotiations began re. Somaliland frontier till a Boundary Commission met early 1932 at Berbera. The Anglo-Ital. Somaliland boundary had been demarcated 1929-30. Latter part of the paper describes the demarcation process for the Somaliland-Ethiopia boundary. “The coldest place we met was Jijiga, where in early January 1935 water in chaguls hanging outside our tents froze at night – to the amazement of many of our staff who had never seen ice before.”

                  In Sept 32, Kew sent out Gillett who worked a considerable area round Hargeisa and Borama, then on to Harar in mid-Feb.

                  “The Haud is a vast area of thorn bush desert sloping very uniformly southwards, with little, or only very minor, physical relief. It contains no permanent water except at Doomo (Damot on current maps) and Harodiget…It is nevertheless a region of the utmost importance to the tribes on account of its grazing.” (Doomo is N from Galadi and Harodiget is SE from Dhegabur.) The Haud includes many open stretches but as a generalization in the E & S it is (very) thick thorn bush and in the NW it is parkland. On the map it is a broad part of the Ogaden abutting Somaliland (and presumably extending a small ways into Somaliland).

                  Most tracks through the Haud run N-S and were the (traditional) caravan routes leading to Berbera or Bulhar (W of Berbera). But development of Ethiopian control has diverted trade via Dhegabur and Jijiga, and it is striking how W of a Hargeisa-Dhegabur line the tracks swing round westward to Jijiga where formerly they led over passes on the watershed between the Fafan and Jerer basins.

                  The Zeila Plain is a vast expanse of sand and grass with several large watercourses running through it towards the coast. After heavy rains, may get a wide sea of mud barring motor travel from Zeila to Berbera. Parts of the plain have a light sprinkling of thorn trees but in general trees are restricted to near watercourses.

                  NW of the Haud is a completely bare (i.e. grass) plain, much of the SW half under cultivation.

                  Somalis are divided into the Aji or pure blood and Sab or outcast. The latter consist of 3 tribes: Midgan, hunters and menials, providing the sweepers for the European community; Tomal, who are the blacksmiths; and Yibir, “a begging tribe who play an important part in Somali life, living largely by the survival of superstitious beliefs. In general, the Sab are scattered among the Aji, to whom they are subject.” The Aji comprise Asha and some others mainly in Italian Somaliland. There are 2 big branches, the Ishaak or Isahaq and Darod. The Ishaak are essentially the people in (British) Somaliland. The Darod include the Ogaden, Herti and some smaller ones. The Herti occupy the coast some distance E from Berbera and fairly continuously all the way round to Kenya. One element of the Herti, the Dolbahanta, live inland mainly in E Somaliland. Other Somali tribes say of the Dolbahanta, “the children of a blind old man by a mad old woman.” W of the Dolbahanta are the Ishaak, and W of them the Gadabursi, atypical in being to a considerable extent agricultural. The Ogaden tribe are S of the Dolbahanta and Ishaak. W of the Gadabursi are the Esa, “a wild tribe with a tremendous reputation for fierceness.” No doubt they need it, as their western neighbors are the still wilder Danakil.

                  Sheep and goats are everywhere, also camels except in W Ishaak and Gadabursi country a good many cattle because rainfall is higher. The Ishaak, Dolbahanta and Ogaden also have horses (‘ponies’), though African horse sickness periodically takes a heavy toll of them.

                  At Dhegabur individual wells have specific ownership. At Bulale wells are in groups, per stock class, as well as individual ownership within each group.

                  Characterizes the Somali p.293-4. Tough and wiry though far from robust. Contact with civilization does not improve him. The writer “cordially disliked the sophisticated specimens near the coast…” Will do manual labor when compelled by economic circumstances but quite useless as porters. Quick-tempered.

                  “Somaliland used to be the great shikar resort for Aden.” A rinderpest epidemic earlier in the century (he’s not sure when). Swayne’s hartebeest used to be extremely plentiful on the plains N & E of Jijiga but seems near extinction. Lesser kudu, Soemmering’s gazelle, Pelzeln’s and Speke’s dhero (gazelle) and gerenuk are numerous (in the general region). Klipspringer and baira by no means rare in the mountains. Dibatag found all over the Haud except in the W. Dikdik abound. There are lion, leopard and cheetah. Of game birds it is markedly a country of bustards, and immense numbers of sandgrouse visit certain water points.

Gillett, JB  1941  The plant formations of western British Somaliland and the Harar Province of Abyssinia.  Kew Bul. (Bul. Misc. Info.) 1941: 37-75.

                  (the cmp file includes Hutchinson & Bruce p.76-199)

                  An excellent grasp of the vegetation, particularly considering how old this was. Jan Gillett could have made as good a plant ecologist as taxonomist.

                  A prose description of the veg of this region (NW Som), along with an incompletely filled map indicating the main formations sensu Clements (veg/habitat types) (7) in the regions explored (presumably). Note extension W on map to Dire Dawa. At the end, a list of the more important plants with vernacular names (though no mention of provenance). I have done this list. It is all Ishaak.

1.Subdesert. Scattered dS’s <½m and tufted grasses; taller woody only by watercourses or where belowground water. CTs classified by soil. On eluvial soil dominants include Aerva tomentosa, Jatropha glandulosa, Farsetia longisiliqua. Graminoids include Aristida spp, A. mutabilis, Enneapogon 4665, Cyperus conglomeratus. On deep sands, almost pure stands of Eragrostis hararensis or Panicum turgidum. In slight depressions Indigofera spp, Crotalaria spp, Tephrosia spp and a few others. Main species of alluvial fans are Balanites orbicularis, Maerua somalensis, Zygophyllum hildebrandtii. Where groundwater more plentiful, Acacia tortilis is a main tree.

On deep moist coastal sand, Sporobolus spicatus and Aeluropus lagopoides form a close sward. On shallow sand scattered tufts of Cyperus conglomeratus.

Tugs in subdesert have Tamarix nilotica forming dense groves, Pentatropis cynanchoides where Tamarix groves are broken up by heavy grazing, Calotropis procera prominent, Acacia tortilis forms dense thickets with evergreen shrubs and creepers, Sansevieria ehrenbergii dominant some places.

2.Commiphora – bush Acacia open deciduous scrub. Not >4 m, usually spiny and resin or gum-bearing. On eluvial soils the dominants are usually Commiphora and Acacia, on alluvial soils Acacia spp alone. The climax on eluvial soils is dominated by Commiphora while Acacias, though usually more numerous, are often less conspicuous. Roots are shallow and widely spreading. The only real trees are A. tortilis, Bala aegy and Delonix elata. The main larger shrubs are C. cuspidata, C. myrrha, A. asak, A. somalensis, Premna resinosa, Rhigozum somalense, Euphorbia cuneata, E. thi. Other shrubs include C. opobalsamum, C. crenulata, C. gowlello, C. tubuk, C. rostrata, C. erythraea, A. mellifera, Caesalpinia erianthera, Jatropha spinosa, Canada longifolia.

In the Haud the chief shrubs are C. erythraea, C. samharensis, C. obovata, C. playfairii, C. crenulata, C. crenatolobata, C. gowlello, C. resiniflua, C. ancistrophora, C. flaviflora, Lannea triphylla, Iphiona rotundifolia, Sesamothamnus smithii, Dalbergia commiphoroides, Caesalpinia gillettii, Sarcostemma viminale, Boswellia bricchetti, Grewia sp.

                  The main small shrubs are Grewia tenax, Iphiona rotundifolia, Croton cliffordii, C. somalensis, Tephrosia obbiadensis. Others: Adenia venenata, Adenium somalense (not common but very conspicuous), Cadaba glandulosa, Jatropha spinosa, Farsetia longisiliqua, Cienfuegosia ellenbeckii.

                  In the Haud the main small shrubs are the tall grass Andropogon cyrtocladus, Jatropha parvifolia, Ipomoea donaldsonii, Adenium somalense, Lycium europeum, Hildebrandtia somalensis, Blepharispermum fruticosum, Cephalocroton cordofanus, Adenia venenata, Iphiona rotundifolia.

                  Main herbs are Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Blepharis edulis, Oldenlandia rotata, Boerhavia elegans, Indigofera, also Chrysopogon aucheri and succulents (Aloe trichosantha, Portulaca wightiana, Caralluma edithae, Euphorbia spp) & some others. In The Haud some more important herbs are Sporobolus ruspolianus, Ceropegia subaphylla, Raphanocarpus stefaninii, Sarcostemma viminale, Indigofera ruspolii, Dorstenia crispa, Vernonia cinerascens. (Note some of these are actually dS’s & not herbs)

                  On alluvial soils, climax Acacia community. Scattered Balanites orbicularis and B. aegyptiaca trees. Acacia bushes dense, 1-2 m, flat-topped, A. sieberiana dominant on sand. Shrubs: Cadaba farinosa, Grewia tenax, Lycium europeum. Small woody: abundant Indigofera ruspolii, Iphiona rotundifolia. Graminoids which may be locally dominant: Eragrostis hararensis, Cyperus sp, Lasiurus hirsutus, Chrysopogon aucheri, Sporobolus variegatus, Chaetostichium minimum, Dignathia villosa, Enteropogon barbatus, Chloris myriostachya. Other herbs: Crinum ornatum, Euphorbia nigrispina, Ceropegia nuda, Blepharis edulis, Barleria hochstetteri, Corchorus cinerascens, Hibiscus micranthus, Indigofera intricata, Eremopogon foveolatus, Tricholaena teneriffae.

                  In the Haud this type occurs in the very slight depressions which alternate with equally slight ridges of Commiphora-Acacia bush. Trees are absent in the Haud (there are trees but they’re only 1-2 m). A. misera dominant; also A. senegal, A. sieberiana, A. mellifera. Occasional Boscia minimifolia. Other shrubs: Grewia tenax, Cordia gharaf, Caucanthus edulis, Ehretia obtusifolia, Grewia erythraea, Maerua sessiliflora. In the Haud: Craterostigma plantaginea, Abutilon molle, Cyclocheilon somalense, Sarcostemma viminale, Scilla somaliensis, Commelina albescens, Coccinea laevigata, Melhania muricata, Sericocomopsis pallida.

                  Tugs. At the margin of tugs the most important grasses are Panicum turgidum, Pennisetum dichotomum and Sporobolus robustus. Also pure or mixed communities of Typha angustifolia, Phragmites communis, Saccharum ravennae. These give way to Tamarix nilotica thickets with a ground flora of Coelachyrum stoloniferum, Cenchrus setigerus, Sporobolus spicatus, S. robustus. These thickets give way to tree cover of A. tortilis, Salvadora persica, Ziziphus mauritiana, A. senegal, Balanites aegyptiaca.

                  Rhigozum scrub.  Near Mt Elmis and W of it, a very impoverished scrub in which Rhigozum somalense dominant and sometimes the only shrub.

                  Commiphora erythraea-Acacia asak-Croton open scrub. On lower N-facing slopes of escarpment at 600-900 m. This open scrub occurs especially on noncalcareous substrate. Dominated by Commiphora erythraea, Acacia asak, A. mellifera along with Croton cliffordii and S. somalensis among the lesser shrubs on eluvial ground, and Acacia senegal on alluvial ground. Also common shrubs on eluvial ground are Commiphora crassispina, C. opobalsamum, Grewia tenax, Premna resinosa, Cadaba glandulosa. Euphorbia scoparia often abundant in river gorges. A common climber is Psilotrichum gnaphalobryum. Characteristic herbs: Danthoniopsis barbata, Enneapogon cenchroides, Sporobolus, Barleria hochstetteri, B. acanthoides, Ecbolium anisacanthus. Overgrazing in this CT eliminates first the Commiphora and then the Acacia, leaving a community with only Croton as its woody plants.

                  3.Tree Acacia open woodland. Usually somewhat over 3m tall, and with a very extensive superficial root system. Beneath and between the trees is a carpet of grasses and acanths. Aloes often abundant.

                  3a. Acacia bussei CT is widespread. Trees 3-8 m, with very extensive superficial root systems. In tree shade: Justicia spp, Lycium europeum, Vernonia cinerascens, Chrysopogon aucheri, Tetrapogon villosus. In open glades: Cenchrus ciliaris and Sporobolus variegatus often in pure stands. The former position of acacias is frequently shown by a ring of Chrysopogon aucheri. Also important trees: A. tortilis, A. mellifera, Albizia 4095, Balanites glabra. Important shrubs: Grewia erythraea. Important grasses: Aristida adscensionis, Sporobolus marginatus, Tetrapogon tenellus, Cenchrus ciliaris, and herbs Polygala obtusissima, Hibiscus somalensis, Barleria diffusa, Solanum carense, Ipomoea cicatricosa, Commicarpus plumbagineus, Hibiscus hildebrandtii, Ocimum tomentosum, Hydnora abyssinica, Triplotaxis somalensis, Portulaca oleracea, Becium knyanum, Thesium radicans, Crotalaria dumosa, Zygophyllum simplex, Justicia 4215.

                  Open grassland in slight depressions in the Haud, with Chrysopogon aucheri dominant and may be almost pure.

                  Drier A. bussei woodland in the Haud also has A. senegal and A. mellifera as codominants. Shrubs include Grewia tenax, Commiphora gowlello, C. candidula, C. linearifolia, Acacia etbaica. The large and bushy Andropogon cyrtocladus is locally dominant in the Haud where lack of permanent water limits the severity of grazing, but has most probably been almost entirely grazed out in northern areas of A. bussei woodland. In drier A. bussei woodlands N of the Haud, other significant trees are Delonix elata, Commiphora lughensis, C. ogadensis, Sterculia rivae and Cadaba heterotricha; and shrubs include Grewia tenax, G. mollis, G. schweinfurthii, Euphorbia infausta, Aloe rivae, Senecio longiflorus, Sarcostemma viminale, Croton cliffordii or C. somalensis; and characteristic herbs are Caralluma speciosa, Sansevieria ehrenbergii, Aloe trichosantha.

                  Some seasonally well-watered woodlands are dominated by Ziziphus and A. tortilis, and present are Lawsonia inermis, Ficus sycomorus and Tamarindus indica; a more open community has Euphorbia nubica, Aloe abyssinica, evergreen thickets of Salvadora persica and Dobera glabra, abundant Sansevieria ehrenbergii and Aloe trichosantha, and other woody species include Berchemia discolor, Balanites aegyptiaca, Cordia ovalis and Turraea parvifolia. (This hydroseral phase of A. bussei is a confusion to my mind.)

                  3b. Acacia etbaica association. The climax is Acacia etbaica woodland. This tree retains its leaves far into the dry season, in contrast to A. bussei whose leaves fall much earlier. Thanks to the persistence of its foliage, A. etbaica is much lopped for fodder, and the community often comes to consist of bushes rather than trees. The only other important tree is Euphorbia grandis which may be codominant on noncalcareous substrates. Also here are Acacia nr subalata (3948), Balanites glabra and Maerua sessiliflora, and the shrubs Cadaba farinosa and Euphorbia nubica. Abundant everywhere and sometimes forming close stands on deeper soil is Aloe abyssinica. Cissus rotundifolia is frequent. Important grasses are Tetrapogon villosus, Chrysopogon aucheri, Eragrostis aulacosperma and Rhynchelytrum villosum. Succulents are Caralluma speciosa, Euphorbia turbiniformis, Caralluma dicapuae and Ceropegia sp. Many forbs and dwarf shrubs, and esp prominent are the acanths Hypoestes hildebrandtii, Blepharis fruticulosa, B. edulis and Barleria proxima; also Ipomoea cicatricosa, Vaupelia heliocharis, Boerhavia reniformis, Lasiosiphon somalensis, Orthosiphon tenuiflorus and Vernonia cierascens. Other forbs: Barleria parviflora, Bouchea sessilifolia, Barleria quadrispina, Lasiosiphon somalensis, Helichrysum somalense, Cienfuegosia welshii, Tephrosia simplicifolia, Helichrysum glumaceum.

                  Within the A. etbaica zone, wetter places have A. tortilis woodland with occasional large trees of Ziziphus mauritiana to 20 m. The acacia trees are relatively large, average specimens reaching 8-9 m with trunk circumference 2.3 m. The chief creepers are Commicarpus plumbagineus and Cissus rotundifolia. Beneath the trees a herb cover of Leucas urticifolia, Hypoestes hildebrandtii, Boerhavia diffusa, Panicum maximum, Urochloa panicoides, Chloris virgata, Setaria verticillata, Chloris pycnothrix, Commelina albescens, C. forskalaei, Hibiscus calycinus, Crotalaria laxa, Wedelia abyssinica, Abutilon ramosum, Justicia flava, Sida rhombifolia, Ocimum suave, Leucas jamesii, Acalypha fruticosa, Dicliptera verticillata, Monechma debile, Verbena officinalis.

A.tortilis-Ziziphus woodland is successional to A.tortilis-Euphorbia nubica open woodland. Shrubs include Solanum incanum, Grewia mollis, Cadaba farinosa, Grewia tenax, Ehretia obtusifolia, Grewia villosa, Sarcostemma viminale, and a great variety of herbs e.g. Solanum carense, Dactyloctenium scindicum, Commicarpus plumbagineus, Vernonia amplexicaulis, Ocimum americanum, Eragrostis aulacosperma, Sporobolus marginatus, Tragus racemosus, Aerva tomentosa, Diceratella sinuata, Cyphocarpa pallida, Hibiscus hildebrandtii, Ochradenus somalensis, Pergularia daemia, Ipomoea obscura, Nidorella pedunctulata, Salsola bottae, Pentatropis cynanchoides, Sansevieria abyssinica, Ruellia discifolia, Justicia aridicola, Pupalia lappacea, Cynanchum sarcostemmatoides, Cucumis dipsaceus, Ruellia patula, Ecbolium anisacanthus, Indigofera intricata, Ochradenus somalensis, Crotalaria albicaulis, Tragia brevipes.

Succulents are often much more abundant in drier variants of A. etbaica woodland: Caralluma speciosa, Senecio longiflorus; frequent are Aloe somaliensis, A. trichosantha, A. abyssinica, Acacia senegal and A. bussei. Often abundant are small bushes Croton and Grewia schweinfurthii.

3c. On the upper N slopes of the coastal mountains, above Commiphora-Acacia scrub and below evergreen scrub, is an open woodland of Acacia glaucophylla. On limestone it is codominated with A. tortilis and Dracaena schizantha which is trees 10 m tall. On non-limestone codominants are A. etbaica, A. nilotica and Terminalia brownei; Commiphora tubuk occurs, also Ficus populifolia and Combretum tricanthum. The absence of aloes is noteworthy. Prominent grasses are Chrysopogon aucheri, Tricholaena setacea, T. gillettii and Hyparrhenia hirta. Other herbs here are Hypoestes hildebrandtii, Selaginella rupestris (on noncalcareous rock), Triumfetta trigona, T. flavescens, Indigofera oblongifolia, Asystasia coleae, Dorstenia foetida, Lindenbergia sinaica, Polygala abyssinica, Chascanum africanus, Stylosanthes flavicans, Linaria hastata, Pulicaria petiolaris, Polygala erioptera, Pentanisia ouranogyne, Oxygonum atriplicifolium var. sinuatum, Pavonia kotschyi, Melhania denhami, M. rotundata. The acacias here retain their foliage well into the dry season if not year-round. The lower part of the CT adjoinds Commiphora erythraea-Acacia asak open scrub.

                  4.Deciduous scrub. Like acacia woodland but much greater density and richness of species, with trees 3-4 m, belonging largely to genera Acacia, Combretum, Terminalia and Commiphora. It is S&E of Harar. Only briefly seen; a short species list.

                  5.Evergreen scrub. A closed scrub of evergreen or subevergreen shrubs and small trees, usually unarmed, and likely poisonous or distasteful to stock. Describes 4 CTs of which 3 have Buxus hildebrandtii and 1 dom by Acokanthera schimperi. Evergreen scrub occupies a fairly extensive area in Harar district eastward almost to Jijiga, between forest above c6500 ft and Acacia W and scrub below c5000 ft. In NW Somalia above c3700 ft, in fairly small patches. Here Buxus descends to the lowest part of the scrub community in ravines at 2800 ft. Acokanthera descends to 3700 ft and is dominant in the S margin of the scrub.

On noncalcareous substrata: Buxus-Acokanthera scrub. Scattered trees of Cussonia holstii, Ficus vasta, F. populifolia, also Dracaena schizantha on rocks. Large shrubs include Gymnosporia luteola, Teclea pilosa, Rhus natalensis, Tarenna graveolens, Pavetta gardeniifolia, Flueggea virosa, Canthium (Plectronia), bogosensis, Commiphora playfairii (which is evergreen), Maerua sphaerogyna, Euclea kellau, Grewia tembensis. Smaller shrubs include Cadia purpurea, Clerodendrum myricoides, Jasminum steudneri, Azima tetracantha, Trematosperma cordatum, Psiadia arabica. Cissus schweinfurthii a common climber. Among herbs are Haemanthus abyssinicus, Cheilanthes coriacea, Actiniopteris australis, Crassula galunkensis, Selaginella rupestris, Commelina benghalensis.

Acokanthera dominant on noncalcareous rocks. Other trees: Euphorbia abyssinica (grandis), Olea somalensis, Gymnosporia luteola, Ficus populifolia, Pappea radlkoferi. Smaller shrubs: Azima tetracantha, Cadia purpurea, Euphorbia nubica, Dodonaea viscosa. Herbs much the same as Buxus-Acokanthera scrub.

Open Buxus-Commiphora scrub. Dominants Buxus and C. lughensis. Other common trees Dracaena schizantha, C. ogadensis, Lannea malifolia, Pappea radlkoferi, Olea chrysophylla, Sterculia rivae, Grewia tembensis, Canthium bogosensis, Combretum tricanthum, and scattered large Mimusops kummel trees. Abundant small shrubs: Euphorbia infausta, Croton cliffordii, Grewia schweinfurthii; frequent Periploca ephedriformis, Dodonaea viscosa, Aloe rivae, A. abyssinica, Adenia venenata.

Buxus-Juniperus scrub, successional to forest but many dead junipers were seen, maybe killed by drought. Common trees: Juniperus procera, Olea chrysophylla, Sideroxylon gillettii, Pappea radlkoferi, Lannea malifolia, Pistacia falcata, Ficus populifolia. Shrubs & small trees in approx order of importance: Buxus, Gymnosporia luteola, Euclea kellau, Grewia tembensis, Acokanthera, Canthium bogosensis, Ziziphus mucronata, Teclea nobilis, Ficus glumosa, Jasminum steudneri, Pistacia lentiscus, Heeria insignis, Ficus salicifolia, Carissa edulis, Sageretia spiciflora, Commiphora playfairii, Maerua sphaerogyna, Tarch camph, Rhus retinorrhoea, Fagara chalybea. Climbers Asparagus, Rhoicissus revoilii. Small shrubs in order of importance: Cadia purpurea, Dodo visc, Euphorbia infausta, Ephedra alte, Periploca ephedriformis, Plectranthus, Ballota fruticosa, Euryops pinifolia, Lasiosiphon somalensis, Osyris abyssinica.

Dry evergreen scrub, above c5600 ft. May be a fire-grazing subclimax to juniper forest. Main trees: Olea somalensis, Acokanthera schimperi, Combretum ferrugineum, Sideroxylon gillettii, Acacia etbaica. Other trees: Ficus ingens, F. glumosa, Pistacia falcata, Pittosporum abyssinicum. Numerous shrubs of Dodonaea viscosa, Periploca ephedriformis (on rocky places), Dicoma somalensis, Cadia purpurea.

Evergreen scrub around Harar. Dominants are Acokanthera, Cadia purpurea where Acokanthera has been destroyed by fire. Larger trees scattered through the scrub: Euphorbia sp, Ficus incl F. thonningi, Dracaena, Pappea radlkoferi, Croton macrostachys, Erythrina sp, Terminalia brownei. Shrubs & small trees: Carissa edulis, Calpurnia subdecandra, Premna viburnoides, Osyris abyssinica, Rumex nervosus, Rosa abyssinica, Vangueria apiculata, Euclea kellau, Rhus glutinosa, Brucea antidysenterica, Cassia mimosoides, Dovyalis abyssinica, Tephrosia barbigera, Rhus retinorrhoea, Acacia seyal, Grewia ferruginea, G. canescens, Heeria insignis, Grewia tembensis, Lannea schimperi, Ochna inermis, Sageratia spiciflora, Secamone punctulata, Cussonia holstii, Acacia etbaica, Fagara usambarensis, Periploca ephedriformis, Dodonaea viscosa. Chief climbers: Rubia discolor, Commicarpus plumbagineus, Cissus adenocaulis, C. schimperi, Jasminum floribundum, Pterolobium exosum, Osyridicarpus schimperianus, Adhatoda schimperiana, Helinus mystacinus, Rhoicissus erythrodes, Stephania abyssinica. Herbs: Sida schimperiana, Rumex nervosus, Eulophia rueppelii, Dyschoriste radicans, Plumbago zeylanica, Rhynchelytrum repens, Arthropteris orientalis, Aloe steudneri, Hibiscus crassinervius, Indigofera brevicalyx, Polygala quartiniana, Orthosiphon somalensis, Lantana salvifolia, Abutilon angulatum. Intensive cultivation in this zone, much destruction of woody cover for firewood (too).

6.Evergreen forest. Upper parts of Harar massif 6500-9500 ft, small area on Libah Heleh mts in NW Som, summit of Golis range & on Surud mts in N Som. Pure Juniperus forest is relatively open and dry. Has no vascular epiphytes (vs. Juniperus-Podocarpus forest). Abundant Sideroxylon gillettii and common Olea somalensis. Shrubs mostly also in evergreen scrub. Rhus natalensis, Pittosporum abyssinicum, Teclea nobilis, Gymnosporia luteola, Adhatoda schimperiana, Carissa edulis, Euclea kellau, Sageratia spiciflora, Cadia purpurea. Some herbs & low shrubs: Ephedra altea, Gymnosporia luteola, Psiadia arabica, Stachys hildebrandtii, Coleus albidus, Pollichia campestris, Galium aparine, Umbilicus botryoides. Among lesser herbs are ferns: Actiniopteris australis, Cheilanthes coriacea, Asplenium aethiopicum, (also) Pleurochaete beccarii, Tortulea atrovirens. Climber Secamone punctulata sometimes abundant.

Juniperus-Podocarpus forest in Harar is a denser forest. Climax has tree to c30 m, a layer of shrubs & small trees, etc. Among big trees: Olea hochstetteri, Prunus africana, Schefflera abyssinica (usually on steep slopes), Lachnopylis congesta, Dombeya bruceana, Myrica salicifolia (in marshy places), Erythrina brucei. The main small trees & large shrubs: Discopodium penninervium, Trichilia volkensii, Maesa lanceolata, Teclea nobilis, Dracaena afromontana, Maytenus, Pavetta abyssinica, Cassipourea abyssinica, Lasiosiphon glaucus, Ekebergia ruppeliana, Olea chrysophylla, Rhamnus staddo, Acacia abyssinica, Galiniera coffeoides, Rhus abyssinica, Buddleja polystachya, Gymnosporia luteola, Halleria lucida, Vernonia amygdalina, Allophylus abyssinicus, Debregeasia salicifolia, Trichocladus malosanus, Bersama abyssinica, Geymnosporia arbutifolia. Some shrubs: Carissa edulis, Calpurnia subdecandra, Osyris abyssinica, Rosa abyssinica, Dovyalis abyssinica, Celtis kraussiana, Clerodendrum myricoides, Podocarpus gracilior, Sideroxylon oxyacantha, Myrsine africana, Euphorbia polyacantha, Dovyalis verrucosa. Climbers: Rosa abyssinica, Urera hypselodendron, Jasminum abyssinicum, Cissus cyphopetala, Toddalia asiatica, Asparagus asiaticus, Rubus apetalus, Periploca linearifolia, Clematis sp. Long list of herbs & a bunch of epiphytes.

7.Erica thickets. A patch at summit of Mt. Kondudo above 9300 ft and summit of Gara mulata above 9500 ft. Evergreen thicket 4 m high with Erica arborea dominant. Frequent Hypericum lanceolatum, Hagenia abyssinica; occasional Pittosporum lanatum, Crotalaria erlangeri; Myrsine africana (abundant undershrub), Lobelia rhyncopetalum, Rubus volkensii. Many herbs (listed). Erica thicket may be burned, and regenerates from the roots, but too frequent burning leads to creation of grassland fire subclimax, presently more extensive than the Erica thicket.

                  The NW Somalia Commiphora-Acacia scrub is poor in species compared to the same farther E and in the Haud which are rich in Commiphora species.

                  Trees like Cordeauxia and Conocarpus lancifolius could probably be successfully introduced into the NW Somalia Commiphora-Acacia semidesert, their absence “being simply a failure to migrate there.”

                  Numerous succulents are chewed by Somalis to allay thirst, e.g. Cynanchum sarcostemmatoides, Caralluma dicapuae, Portulaca somalica, Sarcostemma viminale. They taste bitter and it is said that they are always much more bitter in the morning than afternoon.

                  Milk vessels are cleansed and disinfected by being smoked with wood fire, principally Balanites aegyptiaca, B. orbicularis, Acacia tortilis, Commiphora tubuk, Boscia minimifolia.

Gilliland, HB  1952  The vegetation of eastern British Somaliland.  J. Ecol. 40: 91-124.

(Note there’s also an earlier work, 1946, The grazing areas of eastern British Somaliland, as vol.4 of the 4-vol study of N Som by Glover 1946-47. It is 140 pp & most of it is a detailed study of the veg, per 6 formations and many subtypes & associations. I don’t know if it’s worth bothering with this rept.)

A simple and inadequately documented paper on the veg of part of N Somalia, but very important simply because it is one of the very few concrete pieces of research we have. A total of only 21 releves, each serving as an example of a veg type. They have quite a few undet species, but it’s all we got! I’ve pulled out some info, e.g. relative f of certain groups.

These releves, based on belt transects 2000×6 ft, list the species, give a f. dist’n of size-classes by stem diam, & a relative % cover (which is annoying & frustrating because I can’t translate it into absolute cover). For grasslands, very brief species lists comprise the releves, based on estimates in 25 in.sq. quadrats.

A rough map of veg types. A few photos.

Some ref to overuse, erosion; and the veg treatment is informed (in overall scheme) by the Clementsian paradigm of climax.

The appendix is very useful, listing the Somali plant names. This has been put into my master file. It’s based on the collection made by P.E.Glover & the author, work done 1944-45.

The Somali usually has “a rather wider conception of species than a botanists, especially in difficult groups, though in such genera as Commiphora his degree of specific exactness was often amazing.” This is a confused way of explaining the Somali’s floristic knowledge. It initially suggests that he can’t differentiate some species, “especially in difficult groups,” which is immediately contradicted by acknowledging that in Commiphora, the biggest and most difficult genus in the Horn of Africa, he is an expert. This seems to surprise Gilliland.

What he misunderstands is that the Somali’s keenness of observation and differentiation is the full equal of ours, but unlike our sometimes academic knowledge-for-its-own-sake approach, his knowledge of plants is calibrated vs. their utility. Where it helps to know, he knows, but in many genera of smaller forbs, for example, plants that are totally insignificant or ‘useless’ as he would put it, there’s no point in differentiating. So he apparently lacks fine discriminatory ability for some groups, but this is because he has no need to discriminate. Where he needs to be, he is a true expert.

So let’s amend Gilliland’s statement. The Somali’s conception of species is dynamic, and relates to a plant’s usefulness. His ultimate taxonomic units may even extend to the subspecies or varietal level.

The veg classification is a mixed bag, too many subtypes without enough documentation, and a whole section on post-climax veg.  Mixed deciduous woodland and thicket, of the deciduous semi-desert formation, is basically Ac-Com bushland.

Hemming, CF  1966a  The vegetation of the northern region of the Somali Republic.  Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. 177: 173-250.

                  The NW portion of Somalia. This veg account serves as basis for studies of desert locust and to help in forecasting behavioral changes due to changing plant ecology (i.e. vegetation).

                  Uses ‘climax’ as “the most highly developed vegetation that one can find, often only as small relicts.”

                  “The nomadic Somali grazier is an extremely good botanist and the quality and type of grazing available in different areas forms an important conversational subject. Most plants have a local name, which may vary from one tribal area to another, and this name, in the case of plants of grazing importance, will refer to only one species. This specificity is, however, directly related to the grazing importance of the plant; thus the broad-leaved plants of the Malvaceae in the genera Abutilon, Hibiscus, Pavonia and Serra all have the same Somali name – ‘Balambal’.” (see also my comment in Gilliland 1952)

                  Botanical investigations in Somaliland began in 1853 with Cruttenden, then Hildebrandt 1873 & 75, and periodically collecting since. The first ecological study covered NE Somaliland (Collenette 1931), then W Somaliland and Harar Prov of Ethiopia (Gillett 1941), then Edwards 1942 and Gilliland for British Somaliland grazing areas. Glover worked on an ecological survey mostly in W Somaliland for several yrs in the 1940s. Except for a checklist (1947) his report vols remain unpublished – though Hemming has drawn on them extensively. Pichi-Sermolli (1957) physiognomic classification of veg of Som-Eth. Grazing was a significant part of Hunt 1951 and Macfadyen 1952. Veg stripes & arcs by Boaler & Hodge 1962,1964 and Hemming 1965.

                  Veg zones are significantly associated both with rainfall and altitude.  Physiography: low-lying coastal plain (Guban) and uplifted plateau S of it, comprising the mts and the plateau proper. Doesn’t get to the veg types till 20 pp in.

                  Between c1880-1920 Somaliland was visited regularly for game hunting. The dominant impression from written accounts is a country with relatively sparse vegetation (though remember these are hunters, not ecologists, they will not appreciate decent veg esp in the dry season when it may appear rather grim even when quite healthy) but teeming with game, enormously reduced since the turn of the century and some totally gone, e.g. rhino, oryx, elephant, hartebeest, and much reduced wild ass, lion, leopard. This was due to uncontrolled hunting, though he doesn’t say what of this was due to white hunters and what was due to the coming availability of guns. Also huge livestock numbers, and much veg change for the worse.

                  Not a formal veg classification, and the veg groups or types are identified in some cases edaphically, or by geographic area, or geomorphology. No releves or tabulated species lists except a few very raw line intercept data; basically it’s just a narrative description that includes rainfall, physiography, some of the dominant or characteristic plant species, and short lists (as sentences) of other presumably characteristic species. For each ‘zone’ gives the veg name used by each of Gillett, Gilliland, Glover and Pichi-Sermolli. Reads like ad hoc field notes lacking a database or real synthesis.

                  Common along coastal dunes in N Somalia: Suaeda monoica, Arthrocnemum glaucum, Halopyrum mucronatum, Odyssea mucronata.

                  Subcoastal plain of N Somalia: dominant are Acacia and Commiphora, and generally similar to the Haud vegetation. Main species along watercourses are Acacia tortilis, Balanites glabra, Ziziphus hamur and Conocarpus lancifolius, a tree to 30 m, growing in wide tugs both on coastal plain and subcoastal zone.

                  Acacia bussei open woodland. Covers large areas of Somaliland, total c50,000 km². But over large tracts all the trees are dead, and a range of speculative reasons were formulated by earlier workers. Formerly the associated grass was Chrysopogon aucheri, now overwhelmingly Sporobolus variegatus, a low dense stoloniferous grass able to resist quite heavy grazing and a very good sand binder. Speculation that the acacia trees died due to reduced amount of water reaching the roots following destruction of the perennial Chrysopogon aucheri cover by heavy grazing. Boscia minimifolia is found alive even where all acacias are dead. Also Grewia spp. Acacia reficiens an important shrub widely in N Somalia. Characteristic of slightly wetter sites in Acacia bussei zone are Acacia mellifera and Blepharispermum fruticosum, also Acacia nilotica. Toward SW limits of the A. bussei zone is the transition to the haud, which is a mixed bush on red sandy soils with a small but sizeable percentage of clay. Where A. bussei woodland has been destroyed, a considerable increase in unpalatable Sansevieria ehrenbergii and Aloe rigens. Dead A. bussei wood is used a lot for charcoal-making, also for fencing graves.

                  Bans are extensive treeless areas in the Acacia bussei zone and in the haud. Some may be natural, others induced. Some have vegetation stripes.

                  Acacia etbaica open woodland. An estimated 20,000 km² in Somaliland, along the N edge of the main plateau and below the evergreen scrub zone. Rainfall c350-500 mm, wide range of soils. Formerly Chrysopogon grass layer but only remnants due to overgrazing, and prominent species enhanced by the grazing include Lycium europaeum, Ballota hildebrandtii, Ipomoea argyrophylla, Lasiocorys argyrophylla [Leucas argentea], Ochradenus baccatus, Solanum incanum, Withania, Aloe spp (e.g. megalacantha, scobinifolia). The main species may be unpalatable or graze-resistant Acanthaceae especially Hypoestes hildebrandtii.

                  Evergreen scrub zone, above Acacia plains notably just above the A. etbaica zone and below Juniperus forest. Best indicators are Buxus hildebrandtii, Cadia purpurea and Dodonaea viscosa, normally shrubs 1-4 m but Buxus locally as tree form and can form a low closed forest. Also significant components are Aloe eminens (tree aloe to 15 m), Cussonia holstii, Dracaena schizantha, Euphorbia grandis, Pistacia lentiscus, Rhus somalensis, Sideroxylon buxifolium. Commonest low shrubs are Psiadia arabica and Solanum renschii. Other locally important components of the zone: Barbeya oleoides, Celtis africana, Clutia richardiana, Nuxia cf oppositifolia, Olea africana, Osyris compressa, Ruttya fruticosa.

                  Juniperus forest.

                  Haud-type mixed bush. Some call it Commiphora-Acacia scrub, Pic.-Ser. called it (in part) broken xerophilous open woodland. “The best physiognomic term for this type of vegetation is bush, a term well known throughout East Africa.” In Somaliland it is S of Acacia bussei woodland and occupies an area along southern boundary, continues southward through the Ogaden (and Cent and S Somalia and) covers much of NE Kenya. Most is calcareous reddish loamy sands with a significant amount of clay that apparently enables the plants to use a high proportion of the incident rainfall. Much of this land has no incised drainage system: nearly all rainfall is absorbed where it falls, without runoff. Another factor is 2 rainy seasons.

                  The vegetation is not severely impacted because the virtual absence of permanent water means that stock use is seasonal. The haud offers the best grazing in Somaliland and Ogaden and escapes the evils of overgrazing. And even where the grass cover is stripped, the surface absorbs water rather than allowing heavy runoff. The vegetation is very species-rich, essentially woody, the important species mainly being shrubs 1-5 m high with occasional trees (emergents) to 10 m. The dominants are Acacia and Commiphora [note not a single species listed!], with an open network of taller trees, usually Acacia tortilis, Albizia anthelmintica, Delonix elata, D. baccal, Gyrocarpus hababensis. The commonest acacias in the shrub layer are A. senegal, A. horrida and A. edgeworthii, and somewhat less common are A. reficiens, A. nr gloveri, A. hamulosa, A. zizyphispina and, in moister areas, A. oerfota and A. stuhlmannii. A. mellifera on slightly heavier soils. In the lower shrub layer (1-2 m), Grewia spp are important notably G. erythraea, G. penicillata, G. tenax, G. villosa. Other common species in the tall-shrub layer (note that some of these are more properly tree layer) are Boscia minimifolia, Boswellia spp, Senna ellisiae, Cordia sinensis, Cordyla somalensis, Cordeauxia edulis locally, Dalbergia commiphoroides, Dichrostachys kirkii, Erythrophysa septentrionalis, Euphorbia robecchii, Gardenia sp, Jatropha dichtar, Maerua crassifolia, M. socotrana, Sesamothamnus busseanus, Sterculia africana, Terminalia polycarpa, T. orbicularis which forms dense clumps. T. polycarpa is particularly important in Wardheer area in Ogaden where forming the densest vegetation of the haud, a low open woodland. Common smaller species: Aerva persica, Cadaba glandulosa, Corchorus cinerascens, Erythrochlamys spp, Euphorbia spp, Jatropha villosa, Indigofera ruspolii, Iphiona [Iphionopsis] rotundifolia, Loewia glutinosa, Melhania phillipsiae, Seddera spp, Solanum spp.

The most important grass is Chrysopogon aucheri and may have been even more abundant in the past. The most abundant grasses today are Aristida kelleri, A. nr paoliana, A. papposa, and numerous less frequent other grasses include Cenchrus ciliaris, Chloris roxburghiana, Dactyloctenium scindicum, Digitaria rivae, Enneapogon somaliensis, Eragrostis aulacosperma, Latipes [Leptothrium] senegalensis, Pennisetum stramineum, Tetrapogon spathaceus, and clumps of Schizachyrium kelleri where runoff provides additional water. “It is unlikely that it was ever dominant over large areas.” (that’s pure speculation)  Severely devastated herb layer around villages and permanent wells, and here cover is very low and the plants are unpalatable. Characteristic of such overgrazed areas are Abutilon hirtum, Aerva persica, Calotropis procera, Citrullus colocynthos, Gomphocarpus fruticosus, Indigofera articulata, Iphiona rotundifolia, Ipomoea spp, Solanum spp, Withania sp.

Reduction in haud rainfall from W to E is mirrored in reduced height and density of the bush, in the E the dominant acacias and commiphoras are low-growing or completely prostrate. As in Acacia bussei region, the haud has open treeless plains (bans) and these have more Chrysopogon than Aristida. Throughout the haud, slight depressions from a few metres to several hundred metres wide. The soils are clayey and the larger ones may hold water for several months. The smaller ones support large clumps of Schizachyrium kelleri, also near them are Acacia mellifera and dense patches of Blepharispermum fruticosum. Larger depressions, 50-300 m wide (ballehs), may support a continuous stand of Sesbania somaliensis. The largest ballehs remain flooded much of the year and vegetation is only toward the edge, a low zone of Glinus setiflorus and Vahlia goddingii and a broken ring of Acacia tortilis trees. Less clearly defined than the ballehs are dohas, areas that flood shallowly and widely after rain. They are covered with grass notably Chloris roxburghiana and Cynodon dactylon, and support Acacia tortilis trees.

Gypseous areas. Cover 36,000 km² of N Somalia. Anhydrite deposits may be several hundred metres thick and outcrop here and there, though most of the surface anhydrite is altered to gypsum. Zygophyllum is abundant. Other species, locally dominant and indicative of heavy grazing pressure, are Aloe scobinifolia, Ipomoea argyrophylla, I. sultanii, Leucas argentea, Lycium europaeum and Ochradenus baccatus. Former climax was likely Chrysopogon aucheri though only small amounts remain, and now dominants are Sporobolus ruspolianus, S. variegatus and Dactyloctenium robecchii which can be dominant over wide areas.  But mostly unpalatable plants such as Aloe spp, Kelleronia quadricornuta, Zygophyllum hildebrandtii. In Nogal valley the most typical tree is Cadaba heterotricha, also lines of Acacia tortilis. Commiphoras are particularly abundant at edge of the Nogal valley where limestone overlies gypsum. The central part of the Nogal is mainly saline plains with Sevada schimperi dominant, also some Atriplex coriacea, Ipomoea sultani, Momordica sessilifolia. In the most saline areas Sevada is replaced by Limonium axillare and the only grass is Urochondra setulosa.

Acacia tortilis  Almost ubiquitous in Somaliland, from coastal plain to 1500 m, on a wide range of soils including saline and gypseous. One of main trees along watercourses of the subcoastal plain of N Somalia. A common taller tree of haud bushlands. It cannot be regarded as an indicator of ecological zones, though lines of trees may indicate underground water. Ballehs (shallow depressions in Acacia bussei zone and the haud) are normally surrounded by a circle of A. tortilis trees. Dohas, areas that flood shallowly and widely after rain, within the haud bushland region of N Somalia and Ogaden, support A. tortilis trees. Lines of trees in the gypseous Nogal valley.

Acacia-Commiphora bushland, aka haud-type mixed bush (Hemming 1966) and broken xerophilous open woodland (Pichi-Sermolli 1957), ranges from the southernmost part of N Somalia and the Ogaden south and east to much of NE Kenya (Hemming 1966 in part). Most is calcareous reddish loamy sands with a significant amount of clay that apparently enables the plants to use a high proportion of the incident rainfall. Much of this land has no incised drainage system: nearly all rainfall is absorbed where it falls, without runoff. Another factor is 2 rainy seasons. The vegetation is not severely impacted because the virtual absence of permanent water means that stock use is seasonal. The haud offers the best grazing in Somaliland and Ogaden and escapes the evils of overgrazing. And even where the grass cover is stripped, the surface absorbs water rather than allowing heavy runoff.———-The dominants are Acacia and Commiphora, with an open network of taller trees, usually Acacia tortilis, Albizia anthelmintica, Delonix elata, D. baccal, Gyrocarpus hababensis. The commonest acacias in the shrub layer are A. senegal, A. horrida and A. edgeworthii, and somewhat less common are A. reficiens, A. nr gloveri, A. hamulosa, A. zizyphispina and, in moister areas, A. oerfota and A. stuhlmannii. A. mellifera on slightly heavier soils. In the lower shrub layer (1-2 m), Grewia spp are important notably G. erythraea, G. penicillata, G. tenax, G. villosa. Other common species in the tall-shrub layer (note that some of these are more properly tree layer) are Boscia minimifolia, Boswellia spp, Senna ellisiae, Cordia sinensis, Cordyla somalensis, Cordeauxia edulis locally, Dalbergia commiphoroides, Dichrostachys kirkii, Erythrophysa septentrionalis, Euphorbia robecchii, Gardenia sp, Jatropha dichtar, Maerua crassifolia, M. socotrana, Sesamothamnus busseanus, Sterculia africana, Terminalia polycarpa, T. orbicularis which forms dense clumps. Common smaller species: Aerva persica, Cadaba glandulosa, Corchorus cinerascens, Erythrochlamys spp, Euphorbia spp, Jatropha villosa, Indigofera ruspolii, Iphiona rotundifolia, Loewia glutinosa, Melhania phillipsiae, Seddera spp, Solanum spp.———The most important grass is Chrysopogon aucheri and may have been even more abundant in the past. The most abundant grasses today are Aristida kelleri, A. nr paoliana, A. papposa, and numerous less frequent other grasses include Cenchrus ciliaris, Chloris roxburghiana, Dactyloctenium scindicum Digitaria rivae, Enneapogon somaliensis, Eragrostis aulacosperma, Latipes [Leptothrium] senegalensis, Pennisetum stramineum, Tetrapogon spathaceus and Schizachyrium kelleri where runoff provides additional water.  Severely devastated herb layer around villages and permanent wells, and here cover is very low and the plants are unpalatable. Characteristic of such overgrazed areas are Abutilon hirtum, Aerva persica, Calotropis procera, Citrullus colocynthos, Gomphocarpus fruticosus, Indigofera articulata, Iphiona rotundifolia, Ipomoea spp, Solanum spp, Withania sp.———-Reduction in haud rainfall from W to E is mirrored in reduced height and density of the bush, in the E the dominant acacias and commiphoras are low-growing or completely prostrate.

Chrysopogon aucheri  Formerly the dominant cover in Acacia bussei woodlands of N Somalia. Destroyed by heavy grazing, and this is suggested as the reason why the acacia trees have died in some tracts: reduced amount of water reaching the roots after the grass was eliminated. Formerly the dominant cover in Acacia etbaica woodlands of N Somalia and E Ogaden but only remnants due to overgrazing. The most important grass of haud bushlands of N Somalia and Ogaden, though likely more abundant in the past. Aristida spp are dominant in the haud bushlands at least currently, except on treeless plains (bans), these have more Chrysopogon than Aristida. Likely the former climax grass of the extensive (36,000 km²) of gypsum in N Somalia though only small amounts remain.

Sommerlatte, Malte & Abdi Umar  2000  An ecological assessment of the coastal plains of north western Somalia (Somaliland).  IUCN Eastern Afr. Prog., Somali Natural Resources Manage. Prog., 63p.  http://www.iucn.org/places/earo/pubs/drylands/somaliacoast.pdf

                  Some pp & figs missing in my copy, including e.g. veg map.

The area between Zeila & Berbera.  Note App.6, a map of the major clans of Somaliland.

                  Despite some heavy browsing and lopping, the trees and shrubs are in reasonably good condition. Effects of grazing pressure are more apparent on the grass layer, with changed composition to grasses that are less palatable.

                  “Early explorers, hunters and colonial officials travelling through the country at the turn of the century write of the astonishing wealth and abundance of wildlife to be seen and Somalia was considered one of the best wildlife areas in Africa.”

                  “Wildlife populations have been in steady decline over the last 100 years and especially during the civil war in the 1980s when there was an influx of weapons, and soldiers and pastoralists alike shot animals in order to supplement their food rations. During the last few years, many species have become locally extinct, such as Beisa oryx and gerenuk, while others had been exterminated long ago (for example elephant, black rhino, zebra).”

                  PCQ. Four veg types: Balanites orbicularis B, Acacia tortilis B, Suaeda monoica S, Panicum turgidum G.  Animal surveys. Meetings & interviews.

195b Balanites orbicularis  The dominant (with Boscia minimifolia) in Balanites bushland of the coastal plain of NW Somalia. Tends to form pure stands in the tree layer and also dominant in the shrub layer. Also common in Acacia tortilis bushland.

036 Boscia minimifolia  Codominant in Balanites bushland of the coastal plain of NW Somalia

036 Maerua crassifolia  Common in Balanites bushland of the coastal plain of NW Somalia

147 Acacia tortilis  The dominant of Acacia bushland in NW Somalia, on coastal sand dunes and stony foothills where it forms dense thickets due to overgrazing and habitat degradation

061 Salsola forskalii  The dominant of the shrub layer in Acacia tortilis bushland on coastal plain of NW Somalia. Also found in Suaeda monoica shrubland along the coast.

128 Grewia tembensis  Abundant in Acacia tortilis bushland of coastal plain of NW Somalia

147 Acacia horrida  Abundant in Acacia tortilis bushland of coastal plain of NW Somalia

061 Suaeda monoica  The outstanding dominant of Suaeda shrubland in a narrow coastal saline strip in NW Somalia. Camels browsing on Suaeda have plenty of milk, which is of good quality and not watery. However, in coastal NW Somalia sheep thrive on it more than camel and goat.

332 Panicum turgidum  The dominant of Panicum grassland, by far the most important vegetation of the coastal plain of NW Somalia.  This vegetation occupies loose windblown sand.

332 Stipagrostis uniplumis  A secondary component of Panicum turgidum grassland on sands of coastal plain in NW Somalia

332 Cenchrus ciliaris  A secondary component of Panicum turgidum grassland on sands of coastal plain in NW Somalia

332 Aristida adscensionis  A secondary component of Panicum turgidum grassland on sands of coastal plain in NW Somalia

332 Chloris virgata  A secondary component of Panicum turgidum grassland on sands of coastal plain in NW Somalia

098 Tamarix nilotica  The characteristic tree along watercourses (wadis) of the coastal plain of NW Somalia. Also along edge of Avicennia mangrove forest.

231 Leptadenia pyrotechnica  Common along watercourses (wadis) of the coastal plain of NW Somalia

231 Calotropis procera  Common along watercourses (wadis) of the coastal plain of NW Somalia

147 Prosopis  Warthog have become something of a pest in coastal NW Somalia where they find refuge in thick clumps of Prosopis

Miskell, John  2000  An ecological and resource utilisation assessment of Gacaan Libaax, Somaliland.  IUCN Eastern Afr. Prog., Somali Natural Resources Manage. Prog., 20p. http://www.iucn.org/places/earo/pubs/drylands/somaliaresource.pdf

                  A highland area to 1720 m in NW Somalia. Historically most of massif was covered by Juniperus procera forest which, through burning, overgrazing, soil erosion and desiccation has retreated to the steep-sided western third of the mountain. Called ‘mist’ forest, though has no Usnea articulata, considered therefore (by Hemming 1966) a climatic relict. Currently being overgrazed, large mammals severely depleted and many extirpated incl sommering gazelle, swayne’s hartebeest, elephant, maybe lion, oryx. Kudu and klipspringer may still be seen. Speke’s gazelle still found on the eastern grasslands and on the plains to the south. Warthog and baboon (hamadryas) common.

Glover, PE  1966  Some notes on Hodotermes erithreensis (Sjostedt) Minor Harris (Somali name: ‘Abor aro madu’) in British Somaliland.  E. Afr. Wildl. J. 4: 47-49.

                  Termites seem to be an important ecological factor particularly in the devastated areas of N Somalia where many parts are seriously overgrazed and eroded. But based on his observations, Glover (1966) concluded that “the damage done to herbaceous vegetation by Hodotermes, even in regions where it is very numerous, is as nothing compared with that caused by stock, even under conditions of moderate grazing and trampling.”

332 Leptothrium senegalense  Leaf and stem observed harvested by termites (Hodotermes)

103 Cucumella robecchii  Leaf observed harvested by termites (Hodotermes)

332 Aristida spp  Observed harvested by termites (Hodotermes)

132 Hibiscus  Dried leaves observed harvested by termites (Hodotermes)

259 Blepharis edulis  The commonest forb in Chrysopogon grassland in a N Somalia study

Glover, PE  1967(b)  Further notes on some termites of northern Somalia.  E. Afr. Wildl. J. 5: 121-132.

                  Description of mounds.

Glover, PE  1967  Notes on some ants in northern Somalia.  E. Afr. Wildl. J. 5: 65-73.

                  Observations made 1944-46.

                  Several species of harvester ants in N Som, the main one Messor barbarus. It makes large nests in the ground, diam often as much as 2 m, and on the plains there may be one per 2-3 acres. Makes roads & runways as long as 120 yd, for collecting seeds and bulbils, and husks are thrown out into a refuse mound near or around the crater. Very common in the haud but not on the greyish, more clayey soils of the dohos probably because these become flooded. Glover doesn’t suppose that the great amount of seed collecting has any ill effects on the vegetation. How does he figure that?

                  Stink ants (Paltothyreus tarsatus). Termites seem to be the main diet.

                  Soldier ants (Megaponera foetens). Also prey on termites. Difficult to handle: they bite and sting, and make a loud squeaky stridulating noise.

                  Tree ants (Crematogaster) in acacia galls. They cultivate insects (aphids). Unpleasant if disturbed.

332 Chrysopogon aucheri  The dominant grass of the haud, a region of Acacia-Commiphora bushlands in the southern part of N Somalia and the Ogaden

332 Andropogon kelleri (cyrtocladus)  Sometimes a dominant grass of the haud, a region of Acacia-Commiphora bushlands in the southern part of N Somalia and the Ogaden

SOGREAH 1982  North-West Region Agricultural Development Project. Feasibility study and technical assistance tech. rep. no. 6, Range and livestock survey.  Ministry of Agr., Somali Democratic Republic, Somalia and SOGREAH Consulting Engineers, Grenoble, France

Venema, JH  2007  Land resources assessment of Somalia.  FAO SWALIM (Somalia Water & Land Information Management) Proj. Rep. No. L-12, Nairobi, 83p. www.faoswalim.org OR http://www.faoswalim.org/ftp/Land_Reports/Cleared/L-12%20Land%20Resources%20of%20Somalia.pdf

                  Funded by EU, implemented by FAO. A disconnect on how the doc ‘should be cited’ but I guess it’s correct despite ‘2009’ at head of rept. Rept based on work of the SWALIM “Land Team” headed by Ronald Vargas, & Land Repts. It is unclear whether field work was actually undertaken, except in extreme NW Som. I suspect the rest of the info is an office study of existing repts. Though they later state that “Various land resources surveys were carried out by SWALIM in the catchment areas of the Juba and Shabelle rivers.” (see SWALIM Tech Repts L-02,03,07,08)

                  “Soil mapping, land capability assessments, studies on farming systems, irrigation and water management, and soil conservation and water harvesting were undertaken during the 1980s under various projects:” WB, IFAD, USAID (acc to FAO-SWALIM 2003 Broad vision and medium term implementation strategy for water and land information. Working paper. SWALIM phase I. OSRO/SOM/303/EC). “SWALIM managed to recover a large part of this information and added it to its information database. However, a lot of the recovered information is incomplete, incompatible and/or out of date.” Apparently the Watson repts were not used, they were acquired later.

                  Concentrated on 3 study areas, one in extreme NW, a couple in N and N of Jariban, and the large 3^rd one covered the basins or actually valleys of Shabelle and Juba Rivers. But the aim of the rpt was to summarize and consolidate findings from various land resource surveys and studies, and give a general assessment of land resources of the whole country based on existing and SWALIM data.

Venema & Vargas 07 – land suitab N Som. (2007? Land suitability Northern Somalia?)

FAO-SWALIM Proj Rep L-06  www.faoswalim.org  OR

http://www.faoswalim.org/ftp/Land_Reports/Cleared/L-06%20Land%20Suitability%20Assessment%20of%20a%20Selected%20Study%20Area%20in%20Somaliland.pdf

            (Not read)

Monaci, L, M Downie & S Oduori  2007.  Land cover of selected study areas in Somaliland and Southern Somalia.  FAO SWALIM (Somalia Water & Land Information Management) Proj. Rep. No. L-03, Nairobi, 97p.  www.faoswalim.org

                  Overlap with Venema 2007. Includes a veg map of part of NW Som, and what passes for a veg map for Shabelle-Jubba basins (p40). They display (p12) the Pichi-Sermolli 1957 map. I still believe it’s a fantasy of that author’s imagination, and I aim to demonstrate that for the Hiiraan portion. I am appalled at how totally uncritical this report is; it dares say that the Pichi-Sermolli map provides “good, detailed community descriptions and locations” and “A comprehensive description at the national level…”

                  Much description on handling the satellite imagery. Fieldwork in May-Jun 06 in NW and Mar 07 in C-S riverine. The land-use classification and cartographic aggregations (sic) are a mess. Note for example rangeland and wooded vegetation as separate classes of the highest rank. The difference is simply based on tree cover. Shrubs and trees each produce separate types based on cover, of <15%, 15-65%, >65%. Why 65%? And they obviously have the idea that rangeland has sparse woody cover, hence hold wooded-cover areas separate from rangeland. Specifically, rangeland by their understanding includes grassland and savanna (by which they mean wooded or bushed grassland).

                  The detailed map on p40, covering the 2 C-S river basis, is titled ‘Main Aggregations’. The main ones in Hiiraan are savanna, wooded (shrubland), wooded (woodland), also some rainfed agr, bare areas (patches in W Beledweyne Dist).

                  They did some transects w/ intercepts for woody, .5x.5m quad (‘box’) for herbaceous by estim of cover classes. For each structural class they merely list a few woody and herbaceous species, i.e. absolutely no idea of quantification (then why bother doing veg work, they should have simply done a checklist of main spp).

                  Annex 2 is a land cover map (p65) but at least for Hiiraan the classes are too broad (± only 3).

(Note: Also see www.faoswalim.org website for more studies from N Somalia.)

Lawrie, John J  1954  Acacias and the Somali.  Emp. For. Rev. 33: 234-238.

                  This is re Somaliland i.e. N Som. Evidently at least partly based on personal observations. Though dependent on the vegetation for both cultural materials and food, and though appreciative of the value of both trees and grass, they feel neither tribal nor individual responsibility and “merely exploit for the present with no care for the future.” (i.e. no conservation ethic)  It is a moot point whether Somaliland is grossly overstocked or herds are merely badly distributed. He feels that an effective system of pasture management and use of water would benefit the situation. Indicators of improper or careless use of resources are lopping for fodder, and cutting branches and small trees for thorn enclosure material. The use of live branches for enclosure of farm land has been prohibited since 1930 by the Cultivation and Use of Land Ordinance, but the practice is rife. There’s also an ordinance from 1947 prohibiting use of live wood for charcoal manufacture yet this practice too is widespread.

I’ve done this backwards: I should have read this paper 30 yrs ago, before we went to Somalia!

332i In the Haud (southern part of N Somalia and southward) there is a grass cover thick enough to carry a fire, and it is often burned in order to produce a crop of young grass and to destroy ticks

147 Acacia  “Acacias of many species play an important, almost vital, part of the lives of the Somali nomads. It might even be said that without these trees nomadic life would be impossible; at least it would be very different. Acacias provide browse for the stock, much of the material for the aqal or portable huts, protective fencing round camps and kraals, charcoal, fibre, and numerous other wants.” Almost all acacias may be used for the thorn fence surrounding nomadic encampment. All species are used for firewood. The bark of many species used for making rope. Most acacias (in N Somalia) are used for fodder: browsed by camel and goat, and lopped in drought time or dry season.

147 Acacia bussei  The soft, succulent young thorn eaten by Somalis and their stock. The old bark from the main stems of this acacia is eaten, and “bark stripping for this purpose probably does more damage than does the making of rope.” The innerside of the outer bark is beaten lightly and then an infusion made, producing a drink like tea. The bark is also used in tanning, e.g. skins for use as water or milk carriers. In N Somalia often used for the revetting of wells because of its resistance to rot and termites. Also one of the species most used for building village huts. A preferred source for centre pole of nomadic hut in N Somalia. Wood for axe handle. A stick is cut from this tree, for use in handling thorny branches when making a thorn enclosure. Bark made into rope, and the rootbark of this acacia also yields a fibre for rope-making. Roots are the favorite material for the hut framework (several semi-circular hoops over which mats are secured); the long roots of this acacia spread for up to 20 m or more just below the surface, and are simply pulled up. Inner bark chewed until soft, then made into string for stitching mats used for covering the Somali nomadic hut. Roots make the reinforcing mesh for big grass-woven vessels. One of the acacias especially liked for firewood in N Somalia. In N Somalia almost the only wood used for charcoal manufacture. Browsed by camel and goat. Fruit eaten by stock. Lopped for fodder and is much more sensitive to lopping than e.g. A. etbaica.

147 Acacia mellifera  A preferred source for centre pole of nomadic hut in N Somalia. Browsed by camel and goat.

147 Acacia senegal  Gum is collected and sold (N Somalia), there is no tapping as in Sudan. A non-preferred source for centre pole of Somali nomadic hut. Wood for axe handle, and often for club in N Somalia. One of the acacias especially liked for firewood in N Somalia. Browsed by camel and goat. Fruit eaten by stock.

147 Acacia circummarginata  Gum mixed with milk and taken for back pains. Gum edible, eaten locally but not marketed. One of the acacias especially liked for firewood in N Somalia. Browsed by camel and goat.

147 Acacia reficiens (misera)  Bark made into rope. Roots used for framework of Somali nomadic hut. Browsed by camel and goat.

147 Acacia tortilis  Excellent shade tree. In N Somalia women knock down the fruit with long sticks and it is eaten green or dry. Wood for axe handle, and often for club in N Somalia. A stick is cut from this tree, for use in handling thorny branches when making a thorn enclosure. Bark made into rope. Roots used for framework of Somali nomadic hut. Inner bark chewed until soft, then made into string for stitching mats used for covering the Somali nomadic hut. A favorite browse of all stock and gives a green flush of browse when there is nothing else to be had. Fruit eaten by stock. In contrast to A. bussei which has only shallow roots, A. tortilis is more resistant to overbrowsing and trampling because it has both shallow and deep roots. But the extensive cutting of its branches seems to make it very susceptible to borer attack.

147 Acacia etbaica  Bark made into rope. Inner bark chewed until soft, then made into string for stitching mats used for covering the Somali nomadic hut. Bark used for tanning skins for use as water or milk carriers. A stick is cut from this tree, for use in handling thorny branches when making a thorn enclosure. Not liked for firewood because the bark does not readily fall off, so it makes a smoky fire. Browsed by camel and goat. Troops of baboons have been seen in the trees feeding on immature fruit. Lopped for fodder, and much less sensitive to this treatment than A. bussei.

147 Acacia nilotica  Excellent shade tree. In N Somalia women knock down the fruit with long sticks and it is eaten green or dry. Roots make the reinforcing mesh for big grass-woven vessels. Fruit eaten by stock.

147 Acacia edgeworthii  The almost ripe seed eaten raw or cooked

147 Acacia oliveri (unispinosa)  Gum eaten

Swayne, HGC  1903(1895)  Seventeen trips through Somaliland and a visit to Abyssinia, 3^rd ed.  Rowland Ward, London, 385p.

                  The Haud is a great elevated interior plateau and wilderness in southern N Som, part of Ogaden and part of northern C Som. “The Somáli word haud is used to describe a peculiar kind of country, consisting of thick and sometimes impenetrable thorn-jungle, broken up by shallow watercourses, and generally having an undergrowth of hig or dár aloes [incl. Sansevieria]. The great waterless plateau generally called the Haud is really a district, and besides the variety of ground properly called haud, includes large strips of open, rolling grass plains called ban, or, to the south-east, semi-desert country called aror….In the wooded parts of the Haud dense thorn-jungles alternate with small glades of durr [Schizachyrium kelleri] grass six feet high, luxuriating in beautiful feathery clumps, with a level red soil.”

Drake-Brockman, Ralph E  1912  British Somaliland.  Hurst & Blackett, London, 344p. 

N Somalia has 3 regions, the Guban (‘burnt’) flat maritime plain (0-2500 ft), the Golis foothills and mountains (2500-6000 ft), and the great internal plateau known as Haud, Nogal Valley etc.

Hadden, R Lee  2007  The geology of Somalia: a selected bibliography of Somalian geology, geography and earth science.  Topographic Engineering Center, US Army Corps of Engineers, Alexandria Virginia, 401p.

                  Starts with description of the various physical features and short history. Then an annotated biblio. I have not gone thru it.

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